Real name of Anatole France. Gilenson B.A.: History of foreign literature of the late XIX - early XX centuries

Encyclopedic YouTube

• 1 / 5

  Anatole France's father was the owner of a bookstore that specialized in literature dedicated to the history of the Great French Revolution. Anatole France barely graduated from the Jesuit college, where he studied extremely reluctantly, and, having failed the final exams several times, he passed them only at the age of 20.

  Since 1866, Anatole France was forced to earn his own living, and began his career as a bibliographer. Gradually he becomes acquainted with the literary life of that time, and becomes one of the notable participants in the Parnassian school.

  Anatole France died in 1924. After his death, his brain was examined by French anatomists, who, in particular, found that its mass was 1017 g. He was buried in the cemetery in Neuilly-sur-Seine.

  Social activity

  In 1898, France took an active part in the Dreyfus affair. Under the influence of Marcel Proust, France was the first to sign Emile Zola's famous manifesto letter.

  From these times, France became a prominent figure in the reformist and later socialist camps, took part in the establishment of public universities, gave lectures to workers, and participated in rallies organized by leftist forces. France becomes a close friend of the socialist leader Jean Jaurès and the literary master of the French Socialist Party.

  Creation

  Early creativity

  The novel that brought him fame is The Crime of Sylvester Bonnard. (French) Russian, published in 1881, is a satire that privileges frivolity and kindness over stern virtue.

  In France's subsequent novels and stories, the spirit of different historical eras was recreated with enormous erudition and subtle psychological insight. "Queen's Hound's Feet" (French) Russian(1893) - a satirical story in the style of the 18th century, with the original central figure of Abbot Jerome Coignard: he is pious, but leads a sinful life and justifies his “falls” by the fact that they strengthen the spirit of humility in him. France brings out the same abbot in “The Judgments of M. Jérôme Coignard” (“Les Opinions de Jérôme Coignard”, 1893).

  In a number of stories, in particular, in the collection “Mother-of-Pearl Casket” (French) Russian(1892), France discovers a vivid fantasy; his favorite theme is the juxtaposition of pagan and Christian worldviews in stories from the first centuries of Christianity or the early Renaissance. The best samples in this way - “Saint Satyr”. In this he had a certain influence on Dmitry Merezhkovsky. Novel "Thais" (French) Russian(1890) - the story of a famous ancient courtesan who became a saint - is written in the same spirit of a mixture of Epicureanism and Christian charity.

  Characteristics of worldview from the Brockhaus and Efron encyclopedia

  France is a philosopher and poet. His worldview boils down to refined Epicureanism. He is the sharpest of the French critics of modern reality, revealing without any sentimentality the weaknesses and moral failings of human nature, imperfection and ugliness public life, morals, relationships between people; but in his criticism he brings a special reconciliation, philosophical contemplation and serenity, a warming feeling of love for weak humanity. He does not judge or moralize, but only penetrates into the meaning of negative phenomena. This combination of irony with love for people, with an artistic understanding of beauty in all manifestations of life is what makes characteristic feature works of France. France's humor lies in the fact that his hero applies the same method to the study of the most heterogeneous phenomena. The same historical criterion by which he judges events in ancient Egypt serves him to judge the Dreyfus affair and its impact on society; the same analytical method with which he approaches abstract scientific questions helps him explain the act of his wife who cheated on him and, having understood it, calmly leave, without condemning, but without forgiving.

  Quotes

  “Religions, like chameleons, take on the color of the soil in which they live.”

  “There is no magic stronger than the magic of words.”

  "Chance is a pseudonym for God when he does not want to sign his own name"

  Essays

  Modern history (L'Histoire contemporaine)

  • Under the city elms (L’Orme du mail, 1897).
  • Willow mannequin (Le Mannequin d'osier, 1897).
  • Amethyst ring (L’Anneau d’améthyste, 1899).
  • Mister Bergeret in Paris (Monsieur Bergeret à Paris, 1901).

  Autobiographical cycle

  • My Friend's Book (Le Livre de mon ami, 1885).
  • Pierre Nozière (1899).
  • Little Pierre (Le Petit Pierre, 1918).
  • Life in Bloom (La Vie en fleur, 1922).

  Novels

  • Jocaste (Jocaste, 1879).
  • “The Skinny Cat” (Le Chat maigre, 1879).
  • The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnard (Le Crime de Sylvestre Bonnard, 1881).
  • The Passion of Jean Servien (Les Désirs de Jean Servien, 1882).
  • Count Abel (Abeille, conte, 1883).
  • Thaïs (1890).
  • Queen's Tavern Goosefeet (La Rôtisserie de la reine Pédauque, 1892).
  • Judgments of M. Jérôme Coignard (Les Opinions de Jérôme Coignard, 1893).
  • Red lily (Le Lys rouge, 1894).
  • Epicurus' Garden (Le Jardin d'Épicure, 1895).
  • Theater history (Histoires comiques, 1903).
  • On a white stone (Sur la pierre blanche, 1905).
  • Penguin Island (L’Île des Pingouins, 1908).
  • The gods thirst (Les dieux ont soif, 1912).
  • The Revolt of the Angels (La Révolte des anges, 1914).

  Collections of short stories

  • Balthasar (1889).
  • Mother-of-pearl casket (L’Étui de nacre, 1892).
  • The Well of Saint Clare (Le Puits de Sainte Claire, 1895).
  • Clio (Clio, 1900).
  • The Procurator of Judea (Le Procurateur de Judée, 1902).
  • Crainquebille, Putois, Riquet and many other useful stories (L’Affaire Crainquebille, 1901).
  • Stories by Jacques Tournebroche (Les Contes de Jacques Tournebroche, 1908).
  • The Seven Wives of Bluebeard (Les Sept Femmes de Barbe bleue et autres contes merveilleux, 1909).

  Dramaturgy

  • What the hell is not joking (Au petit bonheur, un acte, 1898).
  • Crainquebille, pièce, 1903.
  • The Willow Mannequin (Le Mannequin d’osier, comédie, 1908).
  • Comedy about a man who married a mute (La Comédie de celui qui épousa une femme muette, deux actes, 1908).

  Essay

  • The Life of Joan of Arc (Vie de Jeanne d'Arc, 1908).
  • Literary life (Critique littéraire).
  • The Latin Genius (Le Génie latin, 1913).

  Poetry

  • Golden Poems (Poèmes dorés, 1873).
  • Corinthian wedding (Les Noces corinthiennes, 1876).

  Publication of works in Russian translation

  • France A. Collected Works in eight volumes. - M.: State Publishing House fiction, 1957-1960.
  • France A. Collected works in four volumes. - M.: Fiction, 1983-1984.

  (real name - Anatole Francois Thibault)

  (1844-1924) French realist writer

  Anatole France was born in Paris into the family of a bookseller. His childhood was spent in a bookstore located in the center of Paris on the banks of the Seine. He grew up surrounded by books, and sometimes literary characters seemed more alive to him than real people.

  Having received a classical education at St. Stanislaus College, the young man began to help his father. Constant reading made the future writer a widely and diversified person. He begins to collaborate with various publishing houses, editors of magazines and newspapers, and publishes his first collections of poetry.

  Fame came to him in 1881 after the publication of his first novel, The Crime of Sylvester Bonard. The old scientist Sylvester Bonar spends most of his life at his desk. He lives primarily by spiritual interests, easily puts up with life’s hardships and shuns selfish and stupid people. What is generally considered legal and worthy of imitation in society, the main character of the novel considers immoral. He kidnaps young Zhanna Alexander, the granddaughter of his beloved, from the boarding school, because he cannot see how they are trying to cripple her with a mediocre education. But according to the laws of bourgeois society, Bonar commits a crime punishable by law. Entering the fight for Jeanne, he is transformed. The fate of people begins to worry him more than old books.

  The novel “The Crime of Sylvester Bonar” introduced a new hero into literature - an eccentric philosopher, a naive enthusiast who does not recognize the generally accepted dogmas of public morality.

  The writer's attitude to public moral norms can be defined in one word - atheism. The theme of religion runs through all the works of Anatole France. Christian dogma for him is a symbol of stupidity, obscurantism and inhumanity.

  In the works of Anatole France, everything is caricatured and satirically rethought. The author's attitude towards the events and people described is ironic, and often sarcastic and mocking. With irony and a skeptical grin, he reveals the inner world of the heroes and the behind-the-scenes side of events, observing what is happening from the outside.

  Anatole France is the author of the tetralogy “Modern History”, consisting of the novels “Under the Wayside Elm” (1897), “The Willow Mannequin” (1897), “The Amethyst Ring” (1899), “Monsieur Bergeret in Paris” (1901), as well as novels “Penguin Island” (1908), “The Gods Thirst” (1912) and others.

  The evolution of his views took place against the background of social and political events that took place at the turn of two centuries.

  In his youth, the formation of France's views was decisively influenced by the ideas of the 18th century enlighteners, especially Voltaire, with their faith in the human mind and in the happy future of humanity. However, after many unrest and disturbing events late XIX century, he can no longer share their faith in the future. Anatole France is skeptical about man's ability to create a society with a more elevated system of thoughts. He remains an outsider and ironic observer of the vanity of human life.

  The Dreyfus affair dramatically changed the writer's worldview. In 1894, Alfred Dreyfus, a French officer of Jewish origin, was accused of spying for Germany and sentenced to exile. This trial quickly turned political, splitting society into two camps: opponents and supporters of Dreyfus. Dreyfus's supporters (among them the writers Emile Zola and Anatole France) proved that the charges were fabricated by nationalists and anti-Semites. After a long struggle, Dreyfus was pardoned in 1899, and then rehabilitated in 1906. The Dreyfus case had a huge impact not only on the development of social life in France, but also on the relationships of previously close people. Anatole France broke all relations with his former friends Maurice Barrès and Jules Lemaître; he returned to the government the Order of the Legion of Honor, which he had previously been awarded; scandalously refused membership in the French Academy after E. Zola was expelled from there. More and more, the writer shares the ideals of socialism. He welcomed the first Russian revolution of 1905-1907. and the October Revolution of 1917, published in the communist newspaper L'Humanité and created the Society of Friends of Russia.

  Anatole France died at the zenith of his fame (in 1921 he was awarded Nobel Prize on literature) and was buried in Paris in the Pantheon, the tomb of the great people of France.

  K. Dolinin.
  ANATOLE FRANCE (1844-1924)

  "GOLDEN POEMS" and "SKINNY CAT"

  France was born in a bookshop. His father, Francois Noel Thibault, was not a hereditary intellectual: he learned to read when he was already over twenty. In his early youth, Thibault was a servant on a farm; at the age of 32, he became a clerk for a bookseller, and then founded his own company: “Political Publishing and Bookselling of France Thibault” (Frans is a diminutive of François). Five years later, on April 16, 1844, the desired (and only) heir was born, the future successor to his father’s work. Sent to be raised at the Catholic College of St. Stanislav, Anatole begins to show bad inclinations: “lazy, careless, frivolous” - this is how his mentors characterize him; in the sixth (according to French countdown) grade, he remained in the second year and finished his secondary education with a brilliant failure in the final exam - this was in 1862.

  On the other hand, an immoderate passion for reading, as well as daily communication with visitors to his father’s shop, writers and bibliophiles, also does not contribute to the cultivation of modesty and piety befitting a future bookseller and bookseller. Among the regular visitors there are people whose views the God-fearing and well-meaning M. Thibault, with all his respect for learning and erudition, cannot possibly approve of. What is Anatole reading? He has his own library; it has the most history books; quite a few Greeks and Romans: Homer, Virgil... Among the new ones - Alfred de Vigny, Lecomte de Lisle, Ernest Renan. And the completely unexpected “Origin of Species” by Darwin, which he was reading at that time. Renan’s “Life of Jesus” had no less influence on him. Apparently, it was during these years that Anatole France-Thibault finally lost faith in God.

  After his failure in the exam, Anatole carries out minor bibliographic work on behalf of his father, while dreaming of a great literary career. He covers mountains of paper with rhymed and unrhymed lines; almost all of them are dedicated to Eliza Devoyeaux, the dramatic actress, the subject of his first - and unhappy - love. In 1865, the son's ambitious plans came into open conflict with his father's bourgeois dream: to make Anatole his successor. As a result of this collision, the father sells the company, and the son, after some time, leaves his father's house. Literary day labor begins; he collaborates in many small literary and bibliographic publications; writes reviews, essays, notes and from time to time publishes his poems - sonorous, tightly put together... and little original: “Cain’s Daughter”, “Denis, Tyrant of Syracuse”, “Legions of Varr”, “The Tale of Saint Thais, the Comedian” and etc. - all these are student works, variations on themes by Vigny, Leconte de Lisle and partly even Hugo.

  Thanks to his father's old connections, he is accepted by Alphonse Lemerre, a publisher, and there he meets the Parnassians - a group of poets united around an almanac called "Modern Parnassus". Among them are the venerable Gautier, Banville, Baudelaire, the young but promising Heredia, Coppe, Sully-Prudhomme, Verlaine, Mallarmé. .. The supreme leader and inspirer of the Parnassian youth was the gray-haired Lecomte de Lisle. Despite all the heterogeneity of poetic talents, some general principles still there were. There was, for example, a cult of clarity and form as opposed to romantic liberties; The principle of dispassion and objectivity was no less important, also in contrast to the overly frank lyricism of the romantics. In this company, Anatole France was clearly at home; “Magdalene’s Share” and “Dance of the Dead” published in the next “Parnassus” make him a full member of the circle.

  However, this collection, prepared and even, apparently, typed in 1869, saw the light only in 1871; During these one and a half years, the war began and ended ingloriously, the Second Empire fell, the Paris Commune was proclaimed and two months later crushed. Just four years earlier, Anatole France, in The Legions of Varr, lavished vague threats on the regime - the poem was published in a republican newspaper; back in 1968, he was going to publish the “Encyclopedia of the Revolution” with the participation of Michelet and Louis Blanc; and at the beginning of June 71 he writes to one of his friends: “Finally, this government of crimes and madness is rotting in a ditch. Paris hoisted tricolor banners on the ruins.” His “philosophical humanism” was not even enough to approach events without bias, let alone to evaluate them correctly. True, other writers also did not rise to the occasion - only Hugo raised his voice in defense of the defeated Communards.

  In the fresh wake of events, Anatole France writes his first novel, “The Desires of Jean Servien,” which will be published only ten years later, in 1882, and thoroughly revised. In the meantime, his literary activity continues within the framework of Parnassus. In 1873, Lemerre published his collection entitled “Golden Poems,” maintained in the best Parnassian traditions.

  Not yet thirty years old, France moves to the forefront of modern poetry. Lecomte himself patronizes him and takes him into account; in 1875, he, France, together with Coppe and the venerable Banville, decides who is allowed and who is not allowed into the third “Parnassus” (they were not allowed, by the way, no less than... Verlaine and Mallarmé - and that’s all, as they say, on the initiative of France!). Anatole himself gives this collection the first part of “The Corinthian Wedding” - his best poetic work, which will be published as a separate book next year, 1876.

  “The Corinthian Wedding” is a dramatic poem based on a plot used by Goethe in “The Corinthian Bride.” The action takes place during the time of Emperor Constantine. A certain mother of a family, a Christian, falls ill and makes a vow, if she recovers, to dedicate her only daughter, previously engaged to a young shepherd, to God. The mother recovers, and the daughter, unable to give up her love, drinks poison.

  More recently, during the period of the “Golden Poems,” France professed the theory according to which content and thought are indifferent to art, since nothing is new in the world of ideas; the poet's only task is to create the perfect form. “The Corinthian Wedding,” despite all the external “beauties,” could no longer serve as an illustration of this theory. The main thing here is not just a melancholy resurrection of ancient beauty and harmony, but a conflict between two worldviews: pagan and Christian - an unequivocal condemnation of Christian asceticism.

  France did not write any more poetry. When asked about the reasons that prompted him to leave poetry, he answered as briefly as mysteriously: “I lost my rhythm.”

  In April 1877, the thirty-three-year-old writer married Valérie Guerin, a woman who was destined to become, fifteen years later, the prototype of Madame Bergeret from “ Modern history" A short honeymoon - and again literary work: prefaces to editions of classics for Lemerre, articles and reviews in literary magazines. In 1878, Tan published with continuations, from issue to issue, the story of Anatole France “Jocasta”. In the same year, “Jocasta”, together with the story “The Skinny Cat,” was published as a separate book, but not by Lemerre, but by Levi, after which a touching patriarchal relationship between the author of “The Corinthian Wedding” and the publisher, who did not pay him a single franc for it , begin to deteriorate; this would subsequently lead to a breakup and even a lawsuit, which Lemerre launched in 1911 and lost.

  “Jocasta” is a very literary (in the bad sense of the word) thing. A far-fetched melodramatic intrigue, cliched characters (for example, the heroine’s father, a traditional literary southerner, or her husband, an equally traditional eccentric Englishman) - nothing here seems to foretell the future of France. Perhaps the most curious figure in the story is Doctor Longmar, the subject of the heroine's first and only love, a kind of French Bazarov: a mocker, a nihilist, a frog ripper and at the same time a pure, shy soul, a sentimental knight.

  “Your first story is an excellent thing, but I dare to call the second a masterpiece,” Flaubert wrote to France. Of course, masterpiece is too strong a word, but if the weak “Jocasta” is considered an excellent thing, then the second story, “The Skinny Cat,” is truly a masterpiece. “Skinny Cat” is the name of a tavern in the Latin Quarter, where colorful eccentrics gather - the heroes of the story: artists, aspiring poets, unrecognized philosophers. One of them is draped in a horse blanket and comments on the ancients with charcoal on the wall of the studio in which he spends the night by the grace of its owner, the artist; the latter, however, does not write anything, since, in his opinion, in order to write a cat, one must read everything that has ever been said about cats. The third - an unrecognized poet, a follower of Baudelaire - starts publishing a magazine whenever he manages to extract a hundred or two from his compassionate grandmother. And among this generally harmless humor there are elements of sharp political satire: the figure of the Tahitian statesman, a former imperial prosecutor who became chairman of the commission to perpetuate the memory of victims of tyranny, to many of whom “the former imperial prosecutor was indeed obliged to erect a monument.”

  SEARCH FOR A HERO

  France first found his hero in The Crime of Sylvester Bonnard. The novel was published as separate short stories in various magazines from December 1879 to January 1881, and was published in its entirety in April 1881. Always, at all times, the attention of most novelists has been attracted by youth. France found himself in the worldview of an old man, wise in life and books, or rather, life in books. He was then thirty-seven years old.

  Sylvester Bonnard is the first incarnation of this wise old man, who in one way or another passes through the entire work of France, who in essence is France, not only in the literary, but also in the everyday sense: this is how he will be, this is how he will make himself in the image and likeness his hero, this is how he will be preserved in the memory of later contemporaries - a gray-haired master, a mocking philosopher-aesthete, a kind skeptic, looking at the world from the heights of his wisdom and erudition, condescending to people, merciless to their errors and prejudices.

  This France begins with Sylvester Bonnard. It begins very timidly and rather paradoxically: as if this is not the beginning, but the end. “The Crime of Sylvester Bonnard” is a book about overcoming bookish wisdom and condemning it as dry and sterile wisdom. Once upon a time there lived an old eccentric, paleographer, humanist and polymath, for whom the easiest and most fascinating reading was catalogs of ancient manuscripts. He had a housekeeper, Teresa, virtuous and sharp-tongued - the embodiment common sense, which in the depths of his soul he was very afraid of, and there was also the cat Hamilcar, before whom he made speeches in the spirit of the best traditions of classical rhetoric. Once, having descended from the heights of erudition to the sinful earth, he did a good deed - he helped the family of a poor peddler huddled in the attic, for which he was rewarded a hundredfold: the widow of this peddler, who became a Russian princess, gave him the precious manuscript of the “Golden Legend”, about which he dreamed for six years in a row. “Bonnar,” he says to himself at the end of the first part of the novel, “you know how to parse ancient manuscripts, but you don’t know how to read the book of life.”

  In the second part, which is essentially a separate novel, the old scientist directly intervenes in practical life, trying to protect the granddaughter of the woman he once loved from the attacks of a predatory guardian. He sells his library to ensure a happy future for his young pupil, gives up paleography and becomes... a naturalist.

  So from the sterile book wisdom Sylvester Bonnard comes to living life. But there is one significant contradiction here. This bookish wisdom is not so fruitless: after all, thanks to it and only to it, Sylvester Bonnard is free from social prejudices. He thinks philosophically, elevating facts to general categories, and that is why he is able to perceive the simple truth without distortion, see the hungry and destitute in the hungry and destitute, and the scoundrel in the scoundrel, and, without being hampered by considerations of social order, simply feed and warm the first and try to neutralize second. This is the key to further development of the image.

  The success of "Sylvester Bonnard" exceeded all expectations - precisely because of its harmlessness and dissimilarity to the naturalistic novel that was making waves in French prose at that time. It is interesting that the overall result - the spirit of blissful tenderness in front of living, natural life - outweighed in the eyes of the “refined” public the elements of sharp social satire in the depiction of the negative characters of the novel.

  So, one of the most important qualities of this hero is his detachment from society, disinterest, impartiality of judgment (like Voltaire’s Simpleton). But from this point of view, the wise old man-philosopher is equal to another, also very common character in the works of Anatole France - the child. And it is no coincidence that the child appears immediately after the elder: the collection “The Book of My Friend” was published in 1885 (many short stories from it had been published before in magazines).

  The hero of “The Book of My Friend” judges the adult world still very leniently, but - and this is interesting stylistic feature some of the short stories in the collection - the story about events and people is told here simultaneously from two points of view: from the point of view of a child and from the point of view of an adult, that is, again, a philosopher wise from books and life; Moreover, the most naive and funny fantasies of a child are spoken of quite seriously and respectfully; for example, the short story telling how little Pierre decided to become a hermit is even slightly stylized after the lives of saints. By this, the author seems to be hinting that children’s fantasies and completely “adult” ideas about the world are essentially equivalent, since both are equally far from the truth. Looking ahead, let's mention France's later story - “Riquet's Thoughts”, where the world appears to the reader in the perception of... a dog, and dog religion and morality are basically similar to Christian religion and morality, since they are equally dictated by ignorance, fear and the instinct of self-preservation.

  CRITICISM OF THE WORLD

  According to one French researcher (J. A. Mason), France's work as a whole is a “criticism of the world.” The Critique of the World begins with a critique of faith. Much has changed since the Corinthian Wedding; the Parnassian poet became a prominent prose writer and journalist: since the mid-80s, he regularly collaborates in two major Parisian newspapers and fearlessly brings justice to his fellow writers. France becomes an influential person, shines in literary salons and in one of them - in the salon of Madame Armand de Caiave - he plays the role of not only a welcome guest, but in essence the host. This time this is not a passing hobby, as evidenced by the divorce from Madame France that followed a few years later (in 1893).

  Much has changed, but the attitude of the author of “The Corinthian Wedding” towards Christianity has remained unchanged. The essence remained the same, but the methods of struggle became different. At first glance, the novel “Thais” (1889), as well as most of the “early Christian” stories contemporary to it (the collections “The Mother-of-Pearl Casket” and “Balthasar”), do not seem to be an anti-religious work. For France, there is a peculiar beauty in early Christianity. The sincere and deep faith of the hermit Celestine (“Amicus and Celestine”), like the blissful peace of the hermit Palemon (“Thais”), is truly beautiful and touching; and the Roman patrician Leta Acilia, exclaiming “I don’t need faith, which spoils my hair!”, is truly worthy of pity in comparison with the fiery Mary Magdalene (“Leta Acilia”). But Mary Magdalene, Celestine, and the hero of the novel Paphnutius themselves do not know what they are doing. Each of the characters in “Tais” has their own truth; in the novel there is a famous scene - a feast of philosophers, in which the author directly pits the main philosophical views of the Alexandrian era against each other and thereby takes away any aura of exclusivity from Christianity. France himself later wrote that in Thais he wanted to “bring together contradictions, show disagreements, instill doubts.”

  However, the main theme of "Tais" is not Christianity in general, but Christian fanaticism and asceticism. There can be no longer any doubt: these ugly manifestations of the Christian spirit are subject to the most unconditional condemnation - France has always hated any kind of fanaticism. But the most interesting thing, perhaps, is the attempt to reveal, so to speak, the natural, physiological and psychological roots of asceticism.

  Paphnutius, in his youth, fled from worldly temptations into the desert and became a monk. “One day... he was turning over his previous errors in his memory in order to more deeply comprehend all their vileness, and he remembered that he had once seen at the Alexandrian theater an actress distinguished by amazing beauty, whose name was Thais.”

  Paphnutius planned to snatch the lost sheep from the abyss of debauchery and for this purpose went to the city. From the very beginning it is clear that Paphnutius is driven by nothing more than perverted carnal passion. But Thais is bored with the life of a courtesan, she strives for faith and purity; in addition, she notices the first signs of fading in herself and is terrified of death - that is why the overly passionate speeches of the apostle of the crucified god resonate in her; she burns all her property - a scene of sacrifice, when countless and priceless works of art perish in the flames lit by the hand of a fanatic, one of the strongest in the novel - and follows Paphnutius into the desert, where she becomes a novice in the monastery of St. Albina.

  Thais is saved, but Paphnutius himself perishes, sinking deeper and deeper into the filth of carnal lust. The last part of the novel directly echoes Flaubert’s “The Temptation of Saint Anthony”; Paphnutius' visions are just as bizarre and varied, but in the center of everything is the image of Thais, who for the unfortunate monk embodies woman in general, earthly love. The novel was a huge success; suffice it to say that famous composer Massenet wrote the opera "Thais" on a libretto compiled from France's novel by the writer Louis Galle, and this opera was successfully performed not only in Paris, but also in Moscow. The Church reacted to the novel very painfully; Jesuit Bruner published two articles specifically devoted to criticism of Thais, where he accused France of obscenity, blasphemy, immorality, etc., etc.

  However, the author of “Thais” did not heed the calls of well-intentioned criticism and in the next novel, “The Tavern of Queen Goose Paws” (1892), he again gave vent to his merciless skepticism. From Hellenistic Egypt the author is transported to the free-thinking, picturesque and dirty Paris of the 18th century; Instead of the gloomy fanatic Paphnutius, the seductive and faith-thirsty courtesan Thais, the sophisticated epicurean Nikias and a brilliant galaxy of philosophers and theologians, we have in front of us modest visitors to a seedy tavern: the ignorant and dirty monk Brother Angel, Catherine the lacemaker and Jeanne the harpist, giving their love to everyone who thirsts for in the canopy of the gazebo of the nearest zucchini; the debased and wise abbot Coignard, the crazy mystic and kabbalist d'Astarac, young Jacques Tournebroche, the son of the owner, the naive student and chronicler of the reverend abbot. Instead of the drama of temptation, faith and doubt - an adventurous, as they say, picaresque romance with thefts, drinking bouts, betrayals, flights and murder. But the essence is still the same - criticism of faith.

  First of all, this is, of course, a criticism of Christianity, and criticism from within. Through the mouth of Abbot Coignard - another incarnation of the humanist philosopher - France proves the absurdity and contradictory nature of the Christian doctrine itself. Whenever the humanist Coignard begins to talk about religion, he inevitably comes to the absurd and every time he proclaims on this occasion the powerlessness of reason to penetrate the secrets of divine vision and the need for blind faith. The arguments with which he proves the existence of God are also interesting: “When darkness finally enveloped the earth, I took a ladder and climbed into the attic, where the girl was waiting for me,” the abbot talks about one sin of his youth, when he was the secretary of the Bishop of Seez. “My first impulse was to hug her, the second was to glorify the combination of circumstances that brought me into her arms. For, judge for yourself, sir: a young clergyman, a scullery maid, a ladder, an armful of hay! What a pattern, what a harmonious order! What a totality of pre-established harmony, what an interconnection of causes and effects! What indisputable proof of the existence of God!

  But the most interesting thing is this: the plot of the novel, its dizzying adventurous intrigue, the unexpected, chaotic sequence of events - all this seems to have been invented by Abbé Coignard, all of this embodies and illustrates his own reasoning. By chance, Abbot Coignard enters the tavern, by chance, in essence, becomes the mentor of the young Tournebroche, accidentally meets there with d'Astarak, who accidentally came there, and enters his service; accidentally finds himself drawn into the dubious intrigue of his student with the lacemaker Katrina, as a result of an accident due to a combination of circumstances, he breaks the head of the general tax farmer with a bottle, who has Katrina in his pay, and is forced to flee along with his young student Tournebroche, Catherine’s lover d’Anquetil and Tournebroche’s lover seduced by the latter, Jahil, the niece and concubine of the old Mozaid, who, like the abbot himself, is in the service of d'Astarak. And finally, the abbot accidentally dies on the Lyon road at the hands of Mozaid, who accidentally became jealous of Jahil. Truly, “what a pattern, what a harmonious order, what a set of pre-established harmony, what an interconnection of causes and effects!”

  This is a crazy, absurd world, chaos, in which the results of human actions fundamentally do not correspond to intentions - the old Voltairean world in which Candide and Zadig toiled and where there is no place for faith, because the feeling of the absurdity of the world is incompatible with faith. Of course, “the ways of God are mysterious,” as the abbot repeats at every step, but to admit this means to admit the absurdity of all things and, first of all, the futility of all our efforts to find a general law, to build a system. There is less than one step from blind faith to complete disbelief!

  This is the logical result of belief in God. Well, what about faith in man, in reason, in science? Alas, we have to admit that Anatole France is very skeptical here too. Witness to this is the crazy mystic and Kabbalist d'Astarak, comical and at the same time scary in his obsession. He does not take anything for granted; he courageously exposes the absurdities of Christian doctrine and sometimes even expresses very sound natural scientific ideas (for example, about nutrition and its role in the evolution of humanity) And what is the result? And in the end - elves, sylphs and salamanders, fantastic ideas about relations with the world of spirits, that is, madness, delirium, even more wild and unbridled than traditional religious mysticism. , and “the fruits of enlightenment” - it’s not for nothing that belief in occult forces and all sorts of devilry spread so widely among France’s own contemporaries, people of the “age of positivism”; therefore, one must think, such a d’Astarak appeared in the novel. And this same process - the process of disappointment in science, which, despite all its successes, cannot immediately, immediately reveal to man all the secrets of existence - it gave rise to the skepticism of the author of “The Tavern”.

  This is the main philosophical content of the novel. But this does not mean that “The Inn of Queen Goosefoot” is a simple imitation of “Candide”, where the events and plot serve only to illustrate the author’s philosophical constructions. Of course, the world of Abbé Coignard is a conventional world, a conventional, stylized 18th century. But through this convention, through the transformed, stylized narrative (the story is told from the perspective of Tournebroche), timidly at first, and then more and more, some unexpected authenticity breaks through. The puppets come to life, and it turns out that the novel is not only a philosophical game, but there is much more. Is love. There are characters.

  There are really details. Finally, there is some very great human truth in the simplicity, everydayness with which dramas are played out: how people drive, how they play picket, how they drink, how Tournebroche is jealous, how the stroller breaks down. And then - death. Real, not theatrical death, written in such a way that you forget about all philosophy. Perhaps, if we talk about traditions, about continuity, then in connection with “The Tavern” we need to remember not only Voltaire, but also Abbot Prevost. It has the same authenticity and the same passion of a human document, breaking through the balanced, orderly manner of an ancient tale, as in “The History of the Chevalier de Grieux and Manon Lescaut”; and as a result, the adventurous, semi-fantastic plot also acquires credibility, despite its literary implausibility.

  However, just talking about traditions won’t get you off here, because “Queen Goose Lash’s Tavern” is not a literary antique, but a deeply modern work. What was said above about the philosophical side of the novel does not, of course, exhaust its current, acutely critical content. However, many of the critical motives outlined in “The Tavern” were fully heard in the second book about Coignard, published in the same year. "The Judgments of M. Jerome Coignard" represent a systematic compilation of the views of the venerable abbot on man and society.

  If Coignard in the first novel is a comic character, then in the second he stands much closer to the author, and his ideas can be attributed without any stretch to France himself. And these ideas are of a very explosive nature; in fact, the entire book is a consistent overthrow of the fundamentals. Chapter I “Rulers”: “... these illustrious people who supposedly ruled the world were themselves just pathetic toys in the hands of nature and chance; ... in essence, it is almost indifferent whether we are governed in one way or another... only their clothes and carriages give ministers importance and impressiveness.” Here we are talking about royal ministers, but the wise abbot is no more lenient towards the republican form of government: “... Demos will have neither the stubborn prudence of Henry IV, nor the blessed inactivity of Louis XIII. Even if we assume that he knows what he wants, he still will not know how to carry out his will and whether it can be carried out. He will not be able to command, and he will be poorly obeyed, due to which he will see betrayal in everything... From all sides, from all the cracks, ambitious mediocrities will crawl out and climb to the first positions in the state, and since honesty is not an innate property of a person ... then hordes of bribe-takers will immediately fall on the state treasury” (Chapter VII “New Ministry”).

  Coignard consistently attacks the army (“...military service seems to me the most terrible ulcer of civilized peoples”), justice, morality, science, society, and man in general. And here the problem of revolution cannot but arise: “A government that does not meet the requirements of the most average, everyday honesty outrages the people and must be overthrown.” However, it is not this statement that summarizes the abbot’s thought, but rather an ancient parable: “...But I follow the example of the old Syracuse woman, who, in those days when Dionysius was more than ever hated by his people, went daily to the temple to pray to the gods for prolonging the life of the tyrant. Having heard about such amazing devotion, Dionysius wanted to know what caused it. He called the old woman to him and began to question her.

  “I have lived in the world for a long time,” she answered, “and I have seen many tyrants in my time, and each time I noticed that the bad is inherited by the worse. You are the most disgusting person I have ever known. From this I conclude that your successor will, if possible, even more terrible than you; So I pray to the gods not to send him to us for as long as possible.”

  Coignard does not hide his contradictions. His worldview is best analyzed by France himself in the preface “From the Publisher”: “He was convinced that man by nature is a very evil animal and human societies are so bad because people create them according to their inclinations.”

  “The madness of the Revolution is that it wanted to establish virtue. And when they want to make people kind, smart, free, moderate, generous, they inevitably end up wanting to kill every single one of them. Robespierre believed in virtue - and created terror. Marat believed in justice - and demanded two hundred thousand heads.”

  “...He would never have become a revolutionary. For this, he lacked illusions...” At this point, Anatole France will still disagree with Jerome Coignard: the very course of history will lead to the fact that he will become a revolutionary, without, however, losing his spiritual connection with the old Syracuse woman.

  THE PATH TO MODERNITY

  In the meantime, he is reaping the benefits of his fame. Together with Madame Armand de Caiave, France makes his first pilgrimage to Italy; its result was a book of short stories “The Well of St. Clare”, subtly and lovingly reproducing the spirit of the Italian Renaissance, as well as “Red Lily” - secular psychological novel, written, according to biographers, not without the influence of Madame de Caiave, who allegedly wanted to show that her friend Anatole was capable of creating a masterpiece in this genre. “Red Lily” seems to stand apart from the main stream of his work. The main thing in the novel is the philosophical and psychological problem of thought and feeling. But this very problem is the key to the contradiction tormenting Coignard: in thought he is entirely with the old woman from Syracuse, but in feeling with the rebels!

  In the same year, 1894, the book “The Garden of Epicurus” was published, compiled from excerpts from articles published from 1886 to 1894. Here are thoughts and discussions on a variety of topics: man, society, history, theory of knowledge, art, love. .

  The book is imbued with agnosticism and pessimism, preaching the principle of “condescending irony” and social passivity. However, the life of a skeptical philosopher, at least outwardly, is going quite well. The enormous success of “Red Lily” gives him the opportunity to seek the highest honor available to a writer: a chair at the French Academy. The election took place in January 1896. A few months earlier, the calculating candidate for immortality interrupted the publication of a series of short stories that would later form the four volumes of Modern History. After the election, publication was resumed, and in 1897, the first two volumes of the tetralogy - “Under the City Elms” and “The Willow Mannequin” - were published in separate editions. The third book, “The Amethyst Ring,” will be published in 1899, and the fourth and last, “Mr. Bergeret in Paris,” will be published in 1901.

  After many, many “stories” - medieval, ancient, early Christian, after the wise, skeptical 18th century, so brilliantly resurrected in the novels about Coignard, the turn of “modern history” finally comes. True, modernity was not alien to France before; in all his works, no matter how distant eras they are dedicated to, Anatole France always appears as a writer of modern times, an artist and thinker of the late 19th century. However, direct satirical image modernity is a fundamentally new stage in the work of Anatole France.

  "Modern History" does not have a single, clearly defined plot. This is a kind of chronicle, a series of dialogues, portraits and paintings from provincial and Parisian life of the 90s, united by a commonality of characters, and primarily by the figure of Professor Bergeret, who continues the Bonnard-Coignard line. The first volume is devoted mainly to clerical and administrative intrigues around the vacant episcopal chair. Before us are both the main contenders for the “amethyst ring”: the old-testament and honest Abbe Lantaigne, Bergeret’s constant opponent in disputes “on abstract topics”, which they conduct on a boulevard bench, under the city elms, and his rival, the clergyman of the new formation, Abbot Guitrel, an unprincipled careerist and intriguer. A very colorful figure is represented by the prefect of the department of Worms - Clavelin, a Jew and a Freemason, a great master of compromise, who has survived more than one ministry and is most concerned about maintaining his place during any turns of the state boat; this prefect of the republic strives to maintain the most friendly relations with the local nobility and patronizes Abbot Guitrel, from whom he buys antique church utensils cheaply. Life moves slowly, occasionally interrupted by extraordinary incidents such as the murder of an eighty-year-old woman, which provides endless food for conversation in the Blaiso bookstore, where the local intelligentsia gathers.

  In the second book, the main place is occupied by the collapse of Mr. Bergeret's home and the liberation of the free-thinking philosopher from the tyranny of his bourgeois and, in addition, unfaithful wife. There is no doubt that these episodes were inspired by relatively recent memories of the family misadventures of France himself. The author, not without irony, shows how the world grief of the philosopher Bergeret intensifies under the influence of these purely personal and transitory moments. At the same time, the hidden struggle for the bishop's miter continues, involving more and more new participants. Finally, the third main theme that arises in the book (more precisely, in Bergeret’s conversations) and so far has nothing to do with the plot is the theme of the army and justice, especially military justice, which Bergeret decisively rejects as a relic of barbarism, in solidarity with Coignard. In general, Bergeret repeats much of what the pious abbot has already said, but on one point he diverges from him already in the first book. This point is the attitude towards the republic: “It is unfair. But she is undemanding... I like the current republic, the republic of one thousand eight hundred and ninety-seven, and touches me with its modesty... It does not trust monks and the military. Under the threat of death, she can become furious... And that would be very sad...”

  Why is there such an evolution of views all of a sudden? And what “threat” are we talking about? The fact is that at this time France was entering a turbulent period in its history, taking place under the sign of the famous Dreyfus affair. A rather banal miscarriage of justice in itself - the conviction of an innocent man on charges of treason - and the stubborn reluctance of the military justice and the army leadership to admit this mistake served as a reason for uniting the country's reactionary forces under the banner of nationalism, Catholicism, militarism and anti-Semitism (the innocently convicted man was a Jew). Unlike many of his colleagues and even friends, despite his own pessimistic theories, France, at first not very decisively, and then more and more passionately rushes to defend trampled justice. He signs petitions, gives interviews, acts as a witness for the defense at the trial of Zola - his former enemy, who became the leader and inspirer of the Dreyfusard camp - and even renounces his order in protest against the exclusion of Zola from the lists of the Legion of Honor. He appears new friend- Jaurès, one of the most prominent socialist leaders. The former Parnassian poet speaks at student and workers' rallies not only in defense of Zola and Dreyfus; he directly calls on the proletarians to “make their strength felt and impose their will on this world in order to establish a more reasonable and just order in it.”

  In accordance with this evolution of France's political views, the heroes of Modern History also change. In the third book, the overall tone becomes much more caustic and accusatory. With the help of complex intrigues, not without the direct and not only verbal assistance of two prominent ladies of the department, Abbot Guitrel becomes a bishop and, as soon as he sat down in the coveted chair, he is actively involved in the campaign of struggle against the republic, to which he, in essence, owes his rank. And, like a “patriot’s” stone flying from the street into Mr. Bergeret’s office, “The Case” bursts into the novel.

  In the fourth book, the action moves to Paris, into the thick of things; the novel is increasingly acquiring the features of a political pamphlet. Bergeret's numerous arguments about his political opponents are pamphleteous; Especially notable are two inserted short stories “about trublions” (the word “trublion” can be translated into Russian as “troublemaker”, “troublemaker”), supposedly found by Bergeret in some old manuscript.

  Even more poignant, perhaps, are the numerous episodes that introduce the reader to the environment of monarchist conspirators, playing at conspiracy with the obvious connivance of the police and absolutely incapable of serious action. However, among them there is one character with whom the author, paradoxically, clearly sympathizes: he is an intelligent and insightful adventurer and cynic - also a philosopher! - Henri Leon. Where did this suddenly come from? The fact is that the “official representative” of the author in the novel is Bergeret - a philosopher who is friends with the socialist worker Rupar, positively perceives his ideas and, most importantly, he himself proceeds to practical action to defend his beliefs. However, the old, “Coignard” contradiction, the bitter skepticism of the old Syracuse woman still lives in France’s soul. And so, obviously not daring to entrust his doubts to Bergere - this could cause discontent among his comrades in the struggle - France endows them with a hero from the camp of his enemies. But one way or another, “Modern History” is a new and important stage in the evolution of Anatole France’s work and worldview, conditioned by the very course of social development in France and the rapprochement of the writer with the labor movement.

  THE FRENCH REPUBLIC AND THE GREENER CRENKEBILLE

  A direct response to the Dreyfus affair is the story “Crankebil”, first published in “Figaro” (late 1900-early 1901). "Krenkebil" is philosophical story, in which Anatole Frals again turns to the topic of justice and, summarizing the lessons of the Dreyfus case, proves that with the existing organization of society, justice is organically hostile to a specific person who is not vested with power, is unable to protect his interests and establish the truth, since in its very essence it is called upon protect the powerful and suppress the oppressed. The political and philosophical tendency here is expressed not only in the plot and images - it is directly expressed in the text; Already the first chapter formulates the problem in an abstract philosophical sense: “The greatness of justice is fully expressed in every sentence that a judge makes on behalf of the sovereign people. Jerome Krenkebil, a street greengrocer, learned the omnipotence of the law when he was transferred to the correctional police for insulting a government official.” The further presentation is perceived primarily as an illustration designed to confirm (or refute) a given thesis.

  This happens because the narrative in the first half of the story is entirely ironic and conventional. Is it possible, for example, to imagine without a smile, even as something obviously unreal, a traveling merchant arguing with a judge about the appropriateness of the simultaneous presence of a crucifix and a bust of the Republic in the courtroom?

  In the same way, the factual side of the matter is told “frivolously”: a dispute between a greengrocer and a policeman, when the first is waiting for his money and thereby “attaches undue importance to his right to receive fourteen sous,” and the second, guided by the letter of the law, sternly reminds him of his duty “drive the cart and walk forward all the time,” and further scenes in which the author explains the thoughts and feelings of the hero in words completely unusual for him. This method of storytelling leads to the fact that the reader does not believe in the authenticity of what is happening and perceives it all as a kind of philosophical comedy, designed to confirm some abstract positions.

  The story is perceived not so much emotionally as rationally; the reader, of course, sympathizes with Krenkebil, but does not really take this whole story seriously. But starting from the sixth chapter, everything changes: the philosophical comedy ends, the psychological and social drama begins. Telling gives way to showing; the hero is no longer presented from the outside, not from the heights of the author’s erudition, but, so to speak, from the inside: everything that happens is, to a greater or lesser extent, colored by his perception. Krenkebil leaves prison and is bitterly surprised to discover that all his former clients contemptuously turn away from him, because they do not want to know the “criminal”.

  “Nobody wanted to know him anymore. Everyone... despised and pushed him away. The whole society, that's how it is! What is it? You spent two weeks in prison and you can’t even sell leeks! Is this fair? Where is the truth when good man All that remains is to die of hunger due to some small disagreements with the police. If you can’t trade, that means you’ll die!” Here the author seems to merge with the hero and speak on his behalf, and the reader is no longer inclined to look down on his misfortunes: he deeply sympathizes with him. The comic character has turned into a genuine dramatic hero, and this hero is not a philosopher or a monk, not a poet or an artist, but a traveling merchant! This means that friendship with the socialists really deeply influenced the esthete and the epicurean, which means that this is not just the hobby of a jaded skeptic, but a logical and the only possible way out of the impasse.

  The years go by, but old age does not seem to affect literary and social activities"Comrade Anatole" He speaks at rallies in defense of the Russian revolution, stigmatizes the tsarist autocracy and the French bourgeoisie, which provided Nicholas with a loan to suppress the revolution. During this period, France published several books, including the collection “On a White Stone,” containing a curious socialist utopia. France dreams of a new, harmonious society and predicts some of its features. It may seem to an inexperienced reader that his skepticism has been completely overcome, but one detail - the title - casts doubt on the whole picture. The story is called “Gates of horn or gates of ivory”: in ancient mythology it was believed that prophetic dreams fly out of Hades through gates of horn, and false ones through gates of ivory. What gate did this dream pass through?

  PENGUIN HISTORY

  The year 1908 was marked by an important event for France: his “Penguin Island” was published. The author, in the very first sentence of his ironic “Preface,” writes: “Despite the apparent variety of amusements in which I indulge, my life is devoted to one thing only, aimed at the implementation of one great plan. I'm writing a penguin story. I work hard at it, not giving up in the face of numerous and sometimes seemingly insurmountable difficulties.” Irony, joke? Yes, definitely. But not only. Indeed, he has been writing history all his life. And “Penguin Island” is a kind of conclusion, a generalization of everything that has already been written and thought out - a short, “one-volume” sketch of European history. By the way, this is exactly how the novel was perceived by contemporaries.

  In fact, “Penguin Island” can hardly even be called a novel in the full sense of the word: it has neither a main character nor a single plot for the entire work; Instead of the vicissitudes of the development of private destinies, the reader is presented with the fate of an entire country - an imaginary country, possessing typical features of many countries, but above all - France. Grotesque masks appear on the stage one after another; these are not even people, but penguins, who by chance became people... Here one big penguin hits a small one on the head with a club - it is he who establishes private property; here another scares his brothers by putting a horned helmet on his head and putting on his tail - this is the founder of the royal dynasty; next to and behind them are dissolute virgins and queens, crazy kings, blind and deaf ministers, unrighteous judges, greedy monks - whole clouds of monks! All this poses, makes speeches and then, in front of the audience, commits their innumerable abominations and crimes. And in the background are trusting and patient people. And so era after era passes before us.

  Everything here is hyperbole, comic exaggeration, starting with the very beginning of the story, with the miraculous origin of penguins; and the further, the more: a whole people rushes to pursue the penguin Orberosa, the first of all penguin women to put on a dress; not only pygmies riding on cranes, but even order-bearing gorillas marching in the ranks of the army of Emperor Trinco; Almost dozens a day the New Atlantis Congress votes on resolutions on “industrial” wars; The internecine strife of the penguins takes on a truly epic scale - the unfortunate Colomban is pelted with lemons, wine bottles, hams, and boxes of sardines; he is drowned in a gutter, pushed into a manhole, thrown into the Seine along with his horse and carriage; and if it’s about false evidence that is collected to convict an innocent person, then the ministry building almost collapses under their weight.

  “Injustice, stupidity and cruelty do not strike anyone when they have become customary. We see all this in our ancestors, but we don’t see it in ourselves,” wrote Anatole France in the “Preface” to “The Judgments of M. Jerome Coignard.” Now, fifteen years later, he has turned this idea into a novel. In "Penguin Island" the injustice, stupidity and cruelty inherent in the modern social order are shown as things have happened for a long time days gone by- so they know better. And this is the meaning of the very form of “history” applied to the story of modernity.

  This is a very important point - after all, almost two-thirds of the novel is devoted to “modern history”. It is quite obvious, for example, that the French Revolution of the late 18th century is a more significant event than the Dreyfus Affair, and yet the revolution in “Penguin Island” is given only two pages, and the “Case of Eighty Thousand Armfuls of Hay”, which grotesquely reproduces the circumstances of the Dreyfus Affair - a whole book.

  Why such a disproportion? Apparently because the recent past - and for France it is almost modernity - interests the author more than history itself. It is possible that France needed the very form of historical narration mainly in order to introduce today’s material into it, appropriately processed and “defamiliarized.” The falsified case of high treason, which seemed extremely complicated to contemporaries, turns under the pen of France into obvious savagery and lawlessness, something like medieval auto-da-fé; even the very motivation of the case is deliberately reduced, “dumbed down”: “eighty thousand armfuls of hay” is, on the one hand, a comic hyperbole (like thirty-five thousand couriers in “The Inspector General”), and on the other hand, a litote, that is, a hyperbole on the contrary, a comic understatement; The country is almost reaching civil war - because of what? Because of the hay!

  The result is very disappointing. The ominous ghost of the old Syracuse woman appears again in the last pages of the novel. Penguin civilization is reaching its climax. The gap between the producing class and the capitalist class becomes so deep that it creates, in essence, two different races (as in Wells in The Time Machine), both of which degenerate both physically and mentally. And then there are people - anarchists - who decide: “The city must be destroyed.” Explosions of monstrous force shake the capital; civilization perishes and... everything starts all over again to again come to the same result. The circle of history is closing, there is no hope.

  Historical pessimism is especially deeply expressed in the novel The Gods Thirst (1912). This is a very powerful and very dark, tragic book. The hero of the novel, the artist Gamelin, is a selfless, enthusiastic revolutionary, a man capable of giving his entire bread ration to a hungry woman with a baby, against his will, only following the logic of events, he becomes a member of the revolutionary tribunal and sends hundreds of prisoners to the guillotine, including and their former friends. He is the executioner, but he is also the victim; In order to make his homeland happy (according to his own understanding), he sacrifices not only his life, but also the good memory of his offspring. He knows that he will be cursed as an executioner and a bloodsucker, but he is ready to take full responsibility for all the blood he has shed so that a child playing in the garden will never have to shed it. He is a hero, but he is also a fanatic, he has a “religious mindset,” and therefore the author’s sympathies are not on his side, but on the side of the Epicurean philosopher opposed to him, the “former nobleman” Brotto, who understands everything and is incapable of action. Both die, and the death of both is equally meaningless; escorts with the same words ex-lover Hamelin of a new lover; life goes on, as painful and beautiful as before, “this bitch life,” as France said in one of his later stories.

  One can argue about how truthfully the writer portrayed the era; one can accuse him of distorting historical truth, of not understanding the real balance of class forces and of lack of faith in the people, but one thing cannot be denied to him: the picture he created is truly amazing; The coloring of the era that he revived is so rich, rich and convincing both in general and in its unique and terrible details, in the truly vital interweaving and interpenetration of the sublime and base, majestic and petty, tragic and funny, that one cannot remain indifferent, and involuntarily begins to seem what it's not historical novel, written more than a hundred years after the events depicted, but a living testimony of a contemporary.

  "BOLSHEVIK IN HEART AND SOUL"

  The Rise of Angels, published the following year, adds little to what has already been said. This is a witty, mischievous, very frivolous story about the adventures of angels sent to earth and plotting to rebel against the heavenly tyrant Ialdabaoth. One must think that the damned question to which France devoted so much mental strength still continued to torment him. However, this time he did not find any new solution - at the last moment the leader of the rebels, Satan, refused to speak: “What is the point in people not obeying Yaldabaoth if his spirit still lives in them, if they, like him, are envious , prone to violence and strife, greedy, hostile to art and beauty? “Victory is the spirit... in us and only in ourselves we must overcome and destroy Yaldabaoth.” In 1914, France again - for the third time - returned to his childhood memories; however, “Little Pierre” and “Life in Bloom,” books that will include conceived and partially written short stories, will appear only a few years later. August is approaching, and with it the fulfillment of the darkest prophecies: war. For France, this is a double blow: on the very first day of the war, his old friend Jaurès dies, shot by a nationalist fanatic in a Parisian cafe.

  Seventy-year-old France is confused: the world seems to have been replaced; everyone, even his socialist friends, forgetting about pacifist speeches and resolutions, vying with each other about war to the bitter end against the Teutonic barbarians, about the sacred duty of defending the fatherland, and the author of “Penguins” has no choice but to add his senile voice to the chorus. However, he did not show sufficient zeal and, moreover, allowed himself to hint in one interview about the future - after victory - of reconciliation with Germany.

  Recognized leader modern literature instantly turned into a “pathetic defeatist” and almost a traitor. The campaign against him assumed such proportions that, wanting to put an end to it, the seventy-year-old apostle of peace and denouncer of wars submitted an application with a request to enlist in the active army, but was declared unfit for military service for health reasons.

  By the eighteenth year literary biography France, with the exception of “Life in Bloom,” is all in the past. However, the social and political biography is still waiting to be completed. It seems that there is no limit to his strength: together with Barbusse, he signs the appeal of the Clarte group, speaks out in defense of the rebel sailors of the Black Sea squadron, calls on the French to help the starving children of the Volga region, criticizes the Treaty of Versailles as a potential source of new conflicts, and in January 1920 writes the following words : “I have always admired Lenin, but today I am a true Bolshevik, a Bolshevik in soul and heart.” And he proved this by the fact that after the Congress of Tours, at which the socialist party split, he decisively sided with the communists.

  He had the opportunity to experience two more solemn moments: the award of the Nobel Prize in the same twentieth year and - no less flattering recognition of his merits - the inclusion by the Vatican, in the twenty-second year, of the complete works of Anatole France in the index of prohibited books.

  On October 12, 1924, the former Parnassian, esthete, skeptical philosopher, epicurean, and now “Bolshevik in heart and soul” died of arteriosclerosis at the age of eighty years and six months.

  
  

  Anatole France was born four years before the French Revolution of 1848 and lived eight decades shaken by political passions, uprisings, coups and wars. A poet, publicist, novelist, satirist, he was an active personality who showed extraordinary power of mind and originality of nature. His literary work was the same - passionate, sarcastic, organically combined with a dreamy, poetic attitude to life.

  Anatole France was called "the most French, the most Parisian, the most refined writer." And Leo Tolstoy, noting his truthful and strong talent, said about him: “Europe now has no real artist-writer except Anatole France.”
  Anatole France (real name Anatole François Thibault) was born on April 16, 1844 in Paris in the family of second-hand bookseller François Noël and Antoinette Thibault.

  France, already a venerable writer, explained his pseudonym by the fact that his father, François Noël Thibault, who came from an ancient family of Angevin winegrowers, was called France in this region all his life.

  Anatole grew up in an atmosphere of books and professional interest in the printed word, from childhood book store was a “treasury” for him, as he later wrote in his memoirs. Already at the age of eight, little Anatole compiled a collection of moralizing aphorisms (for which he even read La Rochefoucauld) and called it “New Christian Thoughts and Maxims.” He dedicated this work to “dear mother,” accompanied by a note and a promise to publish this book when he grows up.

  At the Catholic College of St. Stanislaus, Anatole received a classical education, slightly colored by theology. Almost all of his college friends belonged to noble or wealthy families, and the boy suffered from humiliation. Perhaps that is why he became a brawler and a mocker, and began to compose epigrams early. College made the future writer a rebel for the rest of his life, forming an independent, sarcastic and rather unbalanced character.

  Literary creativity attracted Anatole even in childhood. Already at the age of 12, he enjoyed reading Virgil in the original, like his father, he preferred historical works, and his reference book in teenage years became Cervantes's novel Don Quixote. In 1862, Anatole graduated from college, but failed his bachelor’s exams, receiving unsatisfactory grades in mathematics, chemistry and geography. France nevertheless became a bachelor, retaking the exams at the Sorbonne in 1864.

  By this time, France was already a decent-earning professional critic and editor. He collaborated in two bibliographic journals, and in addition, tried his hand at the art of versification, criticism, and the dramatic genre. In 1873, France’s first book of poems, “Golden Poems,” was published, where nature and love were sung, and alongside reflections on life and death.
  In 1876, after a ten-year wait, France was included in the staff of the Senate library - to the great satisfaction of his father: Anatole finally had both a position and a stable income.

  In April 1877, Anatole Francois Thibault got married. It was a traditional bourgeois marriage: the bride had to get married, and the groom had to gain marital status. Twenty-year-old Marie-Valérie de Sauville, the daughter of a senior official in the Ministry of Finance, was an enviable match for the son of a second-hand bookseller and the grandson of a village shoemaker. France was proud of his wife's pedigree and admired her timidity and silence. True, it later turned out that his wife’s silence was explained by disbelief in his talent as a writer and contempt for this profession.

  Valerie's significant dowry was used to furnish a mansion on a street near the Bois de Boulogne. Here France began to work a lot. In the Senate library, he was known as a careless worker, but as for literary work, here the writer did not reject a single offer from publishers, collaborating simultaneously with five dozen magazines. He edited classics and wrote numerous articles - not only on literature, but also on history, political economy, archaeology, paleontology, human origins, etc.
  In 1881, France became a father and had a daughter, Suzanne, whom he loved dearly all his life. In the year of his daughter’s birth, France’s first book was published, in which he found his hero, Sylvester Bonnard, and with him his individual style. The book "The Crime of Sylvester Bonnard, Member of the Institute" received the French Academy Prize. The Academy's decision on the prize stated: it was awarded to "an elegant, outstanding, perhaps exceptional work."

  In 1883, France became a regular chronicler for the Illustrated World magazine. Every two weeks his review "Paris Chronicle" appears, covering different aspects of French life. From 1882 to 1896 he would write more than 350 articles and essays.
  Thanks to the success of Sylvester Bonnard and the extraordinary popularity of the Paris Chronicle, France enters high society. In 1883 he met Léontine Armand de Caiave, whose salon was one of the most brilliant literary, political and artistic salons in Paris. This smart, powerful aristocrat was the same age as France. From her he heard what he needed so much at home: an encouraging assessment of his work. Leontina's long-term, jealous, tyrannical devotion will fill the writer's personal life for a long time. And his wife, Valerie France, will increasingly experience a militant need to sort things out and settle scores every year. Alien to the spiritual life of her husband, she managed to make their own house, which he filled with books, a collection of paintings, engravings, and antiques, alien to France. The situation in the house became so tense that France stopped talking to his wife altogether, communicating with her only through notes. Finally, one day, unable to bear the silence, Valerie asked her husband: “Where were you last night?” In response to this, France silently left the room and the house in what he was wearing: a robe, with a crimson velvet “cardinal” cap on his head, with a tray in his hand, on which was an inkwell and an article he had begun. Having demonstratively walked in this form through the streets of Paris, he rented a furnished room under the fictitious name of Germain. In this unusual way, he left home, finally breaking family relationships, which I tried to preserve in recent years just for the sake of my beloved daughter.

  In 1892, Anatole France filed for divorce. From now on, the ambitious Leontina became his faithful and devoted friend. She did everything to make France famous: she herself looked for material for him in libraries, made translations, put manuscripts in order, read proofs, wanting to free him from work that seemed boring to him. She also helped him improve the small Villa Side near the Bois de Boulogne, which soon turned into a museum filled with works of art and furniture from different centuries, countries and schools.

  In 1889, the novel “Thais”, which later became famous, was published. In him, France finally found a way of self-expression where he had no equal. Conventionally, it could be called intellectual prose, combining a depiction of real life with the author’s reflections on its meaning.

  After the publication of the novels “The Gods Thirst”, “Rise of the Angels” and “Red Lily”, the fame of Anatole France acquired a worldwide resonance. Letters began to come to him from everywhere, and not only as a famous novelist, but also as a sage and philosopher. In numerous portraits, the writer, however, tried not to look majestic, but rather elegant.

  The changes, unfortunately sad, also affected the writer’s personal life. France's daughter, his “tenderly beloved Suzon,” in 1908, having already divorced her first husband, fell in love with Michel Psicary, the grandson of the famous religious philosopher Renan, and became his wife. Anatole France did not like this union. He distanced himself from his daughter, and as it turned out, forever. His relationship with Leontine de Caiawe also deteriorated. For a long time she nurtured and looked after France’s talent, caring for his successes, proud to help him, knowing that he loved her too. Every year they traveled around Italy and visited Greece several times. However, as she gets older, Leontina becomes more and more vigilant and jealous. She wanted to control every step of her friend, which began to tire and irritate France. The writer's bad mood was aggravated by a feeling of guilt. The fact is that Leontine’s health, already fragile, began to deteriorate in the summer of 1909, when she heard rumors that France, sailing by boat to Brazil to give lectures on Rabelais, could not resist the coquetry of the fifty-year-old actress of the French Comedy. Jealous Leontina fell ill. “This is a child,” she told her friend, “if you only knew how weak, naive he is, how easily you can fool him!” Returning to Paris, France apologized for his unworthy frivolity. Together with Leontine, he went to Capian, her country home, where Madame de Caiave suddenly fell ill with pneumonia and died on January 12, 1910.

  For France, Leontyne's death was a huge emotional trauma. Another devoted woman, Ottilie Kosmutze, a Hungarian writer known in her homeland under the pseudonym Sándor Kemery, helped bear the grief. At one time she was the writer’s secretary and with her sensitivity and kindness she helped “cure a great mind” from depression.

  The years of the First World War aged Anatole France. From Paris he moved to the small estate of Béchelry, near the province of Touraine, where Emma Laprévote, the former maid of Leontine de Caiave, lived. This woman was sick and poor. France placed her in the hospital, and after recovery she became the writer's housekeeper, taking upon herself all the care of him. In 1918, France suffered a new grief - his daughter, Suzanne Psicari, died of influenza. Her thirteen-year-old son Lucien was left an orphan (Michel Psicary died in the war in 1917), and France took in his beloved grandson, who later became the only heir of the writer.

  In 1921, France was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature “for his brilliant literary achievements, marked by sophistication of style, deeply suffered humanism and a truly Gallic temperament.”

  Throughout his long life, Anatole France rarely complained about his health. Until he was eighty, he was almost never ill. However, in April 1922, a vascular spasm paralyzed him for several hours. And the writer admitted that he could no longer “work as before.” But, nevertheless, until his death he maintained good spirits and amazing performance. He dreamed of visiting Brussels and London, finishing a book of philosophical dialogues called “Sous la rose,” which can be translated as “Not for prying ears.”
  In July 1924, France went to bed with a diagnosis of the last stage of sclerosis. Doctors warned the writer's friends and relatives that his hours were numbered. On the morning of October 12, France said with a smile: “This is my last day!” And so it happened. On the night of October 13, 1924, “the most French, the most Parisian, the most refined writer” died.

  As the writer Dusan Breski said about him: “Despite all the vicissitudes of critical fashion, Anatole France will always stand next to B. Shaw as the great satirist of the era, and next to Rabelais, Molière and Voltaire, as one of the greatest French wits.”

  Chapter V

  ANATOLE FRANCE: POETRY OF THOUGHT

  At the dawn of literary activity: poet and critic. — Early novels: the birth of a prose writer. — At the end of the century: from Coignard to Bergeret. — At the beginning of the century: new horizons. — “Penguin Island”: history in the mirror of satire, — Late France: the autumn of the patriarch. — Poetics of France: “the art of thinking.”

  Literature that arrogantly separates itself from the people is like a plant uprooted. The heart of the people is where poetry and art must draw strength in order to certainly turn green and bloom. It is for them a source of living water.

  The work of “the most French writer”, Anatole France, has deep roots in national culture and tradition. The writer lived for 80 years, witnessed fateful events in national history. For six decades he worked intensively and left an extensive legacy: novels, novellas, short stories, historical and philosophical works, essays, criticism, journalism. An intellectual writer, polymath, philosopher and historian, he sought to climb the breath of time in his books. France was convinced that masterpieces “are born under the pressure of an inexorable inevitability,” that the writer’s word is “an action whose power is generated by circumstances,” that the value of a work lies “in its relationship with life.”

  At the dawn of literary activity: poet and critic

  Early years. Anatole France (1844-1924) was born in 1844 in the family of bookseller François Thibault. In his youth, his father worked as a farm laborer, but then became a professional and moved to the capital. From a very young age, living in the world of ancient tomes, the future writer became a bookworm. France helped his father compile catalogs and bibliographic reference books, which allowed him to constantly expand his knowledge in the fields of history, philosophy, religion, art and literature. Everything he learned was subject to critical evaluation by his analytical mind.

  Books became his “universities”. They awakened in him a passion for writing. And although the father opposed his son choosing a literary path, France’s desire to write became a vital necessity. As a token of gratitude to his father, he signs his publications with the pseudonym France, taking his abbreviated name.

  France's mother, a religious woman, sent him to a Catholic school, and then to a lyceum, where at the age of 15 France received an award for an essay that reflected his historical and literary interests - “The Legend of Saint Rodagunda.”

  The origins of creativity. France's creativity grew out of the deep artistic and philosophical traditions of his country. He continued the satirical line presented in the literature of the Renaissance by Rabelais, and in the literature of the Enlightenment by Voltaire. Among France's idols were also Byron and Hugo. Of the modern thinkers, France was close to Auguste Renan, who advocated the combination of science and religion (the book “The Life of Jesus”), for “God in the soul,” and showed skepticism towards conventional truths. Like the enlighteners, France condemned all forms of dogmatism and fanaticism and valued the “teaching” mission of literature. His works often present clashes of different points of view, and one of the main characters human intellect appears, capable of exposing lies and discovering truth.

  Poet. France made his debut as a poet4 close to the Parnassus group, which included Anatole France, Lecomte de Lisle, Charles Baudelaire, Théophile Gautier, and others. One of France’s early poems, “To the Poet,” is dedicated to the memory of Théophile Gautier. Like all the “Parnassians,” France bows to the “divine word” that “embraces the world” and glorifies the poet’s high mission:

  Adam saw everything, he named everything in Mesopotamia,
  So should a poet, and in the mirror of poetry
  The world will become forever, immortal, fresh and new!
  Happy ruler of both sight and speech! (translated by V. Dynnik)

  France's collection "Gilded Poems" (1873) contains more than thirty poems, many of which relate to landscape lyrics(“Seascape”, “Trees”, “Abandoned Oak”, etc.) His poems are distinguished by the refinement of form and static images characteristic of the “Parnassian” aesthetics, bearing a bookish or historical-mythological coloring. Ancient images and motifs play a significant role in the work of young France, as well as among the “Parnassians” in general. This is evidenced by his dramatic poem “The Corinthian Wedding” (1876).

  Critic. France gave brilliant examples of literary criticism. Erudition, combined with a refined literary taste, determined the significance of his critical works, devoted both to the history of literature and to the current literary process.

  From 1886 to 1893, France headed the critical department in the Tan newspaper and at the same time appeared on the pages of other periodicals. His critical publications included the four-volume "Literary Life" (1888-1892).

  The work of a journalist was reflected in his writing style. France was constantly at the center of literary, philosophical discussions and political problems of the end of the century; this determined the ideological richness and polemical orientation of many of his artistic works -

  France was one of the first French critics to write about Russian literature. In an article about Turgenev (1877), whose work France greatly appreciated, he said that the writer “remained a poet” even in prose. France's rationalism did not prevent him from admiring Turgenev's “poetic realism,” which opposed the “ugliness” of naturalism and the sterility of those writers who were not saturated with the “sap of the earth.”

  The example of Tolstoy played an important role in the formation of France's aesthetics. In a speech dedicated to the memory of the Russian writer (1911), he said: “Tolstoy is a great lesson. Through his life he proclaims sincerity, directness, purposefulness, firmness, calm and constant heroism, he teaches that one must be truthful and one must be strong.”

  Early Novels: The Birth of a Prose Writer

  "The Crime of Sylvester Bonar." Since the late 1870s, France began to write fiction, without ceasing to engage in criticism and journalism. His first novel, The Crime of Sylvester Bonard (I881), brought him wide fame. Sylvester Bonar is a typical Françoise hero: a humanist scientist, a slightly eccentric book scholar, a good-natured man, detached from practical life, he is spiritually close to the writer. A lonely dreamer, an old bachelor engaged in “pure” science, he seems strange when he leaves his office and comes into contact with prosaic reality.

  The novel consists of two parts. The first describes the story of the hero’s search for and acquisition of the ancient manuscript of the lives of saints “The Golden Legend”. The second part tells the story of the hero’s relationship with Jeanne, the granddaughter of Clementine, the woman whom Bonar unrequitedly loved. Jeanne's guardians, wanting to take advantage of her inheritance, assigned the girl to the boarding house Bonar, moved by compassion, helps Jeanne escape, after which the scientist is accused of a serious crime - kidnapping a minor.

  France appears in the novel as a satirist, exposing the callousness and hypocrisy of society. France's favorite technique of paradox is revealed when correlating the title of the novel with the content: Noble act Bonara is considered a crime.

  The novel was awarded an Academy Award. Critics wrote that France managed to make Bonar " full of life in an image that grows into a symbol.”

  "Tais": a philosophical novel. In the new novel “Thais” (1890), the writer plunged into the atmosphere of the first centuries of Christianity. The novel continued the theme of France's early poem "The Corinthian Wedding", which asserted the incompatibility of religious fanaticism with love and a sensually joyful perception of existence.

  "Thais" is defined by France himself as a "philosophical story." At its center is the clash of two ideologies, two civilizations: Christian and pagan.

  The dramatic story of the relationship between the religious fanatic Paphnutius and the seductive courtesan Thais unfolds against the richly drawn cultural and historical background of Alexandria in the 4th century. This was the time when paganism, which collided with Christianity, was becoming a thing of the past. In terms of his skill in reproducing historical color, France is worthy of comparison with Flaubert, the author of the novels “Salammbo” and “The Temptation of Saint Anthony.”

  The novel is built on contrast. On the one hand, we have Alexandria before us - a magnificent ancient city with palaces, swimming pools, mass spectacles, imbued with pagan sensuality. On the other hand, there is a desert, hermitages of Christian monks, a refuge for religious fanatics and ascetics. Famous among them is Paphnutius, the abbot of the monastery. He longs to accomplish a godly deed - to direct a beautiful courtesan to the path of Christian piety. Thais is a dancer and actress whose performances cause a sensation in Alexandria and bring men to her feet. Paphnutius, by the power of his passionate conviction, encourages Thais to renounce vice and sin in order to find the highest bliss in serving the Christian God. The monk takes Thais out of the city to a nunnery, where she indulges in merciless mortification. Paphnutius falls into a trap: he is powerless in the face of the carnal attraction that has gripped him for Thais. The image of the beauty does not leave the hermit, and Paphnutius comes to her, begging for love at the moment when Tale lies on her deathbed. Thais no longer hears the words of Paphnutius. The monk’s distorted face causes horror among those around him, and cries are heard: “Vampire! A vampire!" The hero can only execute himself. The ascetic doctrine of Paphnutius, opposed to true, living reality, suffers a cruel defeat.

  Notable in the romance is the figure of the philosopher Nicias, who acts as an observer. Nicias proclaims the philosophical ideas and ethics of Epicurus' "divine sin". For the relativist and skeptic Nicias, everything in the world is relative, including religious beliefs, if we evaluate them from the perspective of eternity. A person strives for happiness, which everyone understands in their own way.

  In "Thais" the most important element of France's artistic system is formed - the technique of dialogue as a philosophical and journalistic genre. The tradition of philosophical dialogue, dating back to Plato, was further developed by Lucian, and is widely represented in French literature XVII - XVIII centuries: in B. Pascal (“Letters to a Provincial”), F. Fenelon (“Dialogues of the Ancient and New Dead”), D. Diderot (“Rano’s Nephew”). The technique of dialogue made it possible to clearly identify the points of view of the characters participating in the ideological dispute.

  Based on “Thais,” an opera of the same name by J. Massenet was created, and the novel itself was translated into many languages.

  At the end of the century: from Coignard to Bergeret

  The last decades of the 19th century were full of acute socio-political struggle, France found itself at the center of events. The evolution of France the ideologist is reflected in his work: his hero begins to show greater social activity.

  Duology about Abbot Coignard. An important milestone in France’s work were two novels about the abbot Jerome Coignard, “The Inn of Queen Goosefoot” (1893) and, as it were, a continuation of his book, “The Judgments of Monsieur Jerome Coignard” (1894), which collected Coignard’s statements on a variety of issues - social, philosophical, ethical. These two books form a kind of duology. The adventure plot of “The Tavern of Queen Goosefoot” becomes the core on which the philosophical content is strung - the statements of Abbot Coignard.

  A regular at the village tavern, Jerome Coignard is a philosopher, a wandering theologian, deprived of his position due to his addiction to the fair sex and wine. He is an “obscure and poor” man, but endowed with a sharp and critical mind. Jerome Coignard is not young, has tried many professions, is a bookworm, a freethinker and a lover of life.

  The novel “The Judgments of M. Jerome Coignard” is composed of a number of scenes and dialogues in which the most extensive and convincing statements belong to the main character. Coignard's image and his ideological position give unity to this collection of episodes not united by plot. M. Gorky wrote that everything that Coignard talked about “turned to dust” - so strong were the blows of France’s logic on the thick and rough skin of walking truths. Here France acted as a successor to the traditions of Flaubert, the creator of the ironic “Lexicon of Common Truths.” Coignard's caustic assessments of the French realities of the 18th century turned out to be largely relevant for France at the end of the 19th century. The novel contains hints of the predatory colonial wars waged by France in North Africa, the shameful Panama scam, and the attempt at a monarchical coup by General Boulanger in 1889. The text contains Coignard’s caustic judgments about militarism, false patriotism, religious intolerance, corruption of officials, unfair legal proceedings , punishing the poor and covering the rich.

  At the time when these novels were created, in France, in connection with the centenary of the Great french revolution(1889) there were heated discussions about the problems of reorganizing society. The French hero does not ignore these questions, about whom it is said that he “most of all diverged in his principles from the principles of the Revolution.” “The madness of the revolution lies in the fact that it wanted to establish virtue on earth,” Coignard is sure. “And when they want to make people kind, smart, free, moderate, generous, they inevitably end up wanting to kill every last one of them.” Robespierre believed in virtue - and created terror. Marat believed in justice - and killed two hundred thousand heads.” Doesn’t this paradoxical and ironic judgment of France also apply to the totalitarianism of the 20th century?

  “Modern History”: The Third Republic in the Tetralogy. During the Dreyfus affair, France decisively took the side of those who opposed the insolent reaction, the chauvinists and anti-Semites who raised their heads. Although France had differences with Zola on aesthetic issues, and France called the novel “Earth” “dirty,” its author became for France an example of “modern heroism” and “brave straightforwardness.” After Zola’s forced departure to England, France began to show increased political activity, in particular, he organized the “League for the Defense of Human Rights.”

  The novel “Modern History” (1897-1901) is France’s largest work; it occupies an important place in the creative evolution of the writer and his ideological and artistic quest.

  What is new in the novel, first of all, is that, unlike France’s previous works, which take the reader to the distant past, here the writer is immersed in the socio-political conflicts of the Third Republic.

  France covers a wide range of social phenomena: the life of a small provincial town, the hot political air of Paris, theological seminaries, high society salons, “corridors of power.” The typology of France's characters is rich: professors, clergy, minor and major politicians, lamas of the demi-monde, liberals and monarchists. Passions run high in the novel; intrigues and conspiracies are woven.

  Not only the material of life was new, but also the method of its artistic embodiment. “Modern History” is France’s most significant work in terms of volume. Before us is a tetralogy, which includes the novels “Under the City Elms” (1897), “The Willow Mannequin” (1897), “The Amethyst Ring” (1899), “Mr. Bergeret in Paris” (1901). By combining the novels into a cycle, France gave his narrative an epic scale; he continued the national tradition of combining works into one huge canvas (remember Balzac’s “Human Comedy” and Zola’s “Rugon-Macquart”). Compared to Balzac and Zola, France Brad has a narrower time period - the last decade of the 19th century. The novels of the France cycle were written hot on the heels of events. The relevance of “Modern History” allows us to see in the tetralogy, especially in the final part, the features of a political pamphlet. This applies, for example, to the description of the vicissitudes associated with the “Affair” (meaning the Dreyfus Affair).

  The adventurer Esterhazy, a traitor who was shielded by the anti-Dreyfusards, appears in the novel under the name of the socialite Papa. The figures of a number of participants in the “Cause” are copied from specific politicians and ministers. In ongoing discussions, socio-political problems that worried France and his contemporaries surface: the situation in the army, the growth of aggressive nationalism, the corruption of officials, etc.

  The tetralogy involves a huge amount of life material, and therefore the novels acquire cognitive significance. France uses a wide range of artistic means: irony, satire, grotesque, caricature; introduces elements of feuilleton, philosophical and ideological discussion into the novel. France brought fresh colors to the image central character- Bergeret. A man of keen critical thought, an erudite, he resembles Sylvester Bonard and Jerome Coignard. But unlike them, he is simply an observer. Bergeret is undergoing evolution under the influence of events not only of a personal, but also of a political nature. Thus, France's hero is planning a transition from thought to action.

  There is certainly an autobiographical element in the depiction of Bergeret’s image (in particular, France’s own participation in public life in connection with the Dreyfus affair). Professor Lucien Bergeret is a teacher of Roman literature at a theological seminary, a philologist who has been conducting many years of research on such a rather narrow topic as Virgil’s nautical vocabulary. For him, a perceptive and skeptical person, science is an outlet from the dull provincial life. His discussions with the rector of the seminary, Abbé Lanteigne, are devoted to historical, philological or theological issues, although they often concern contemporary problems. The first part of the tetralogy (“Under the Prodsky Elms”) serves as an exposition. It presents the balance of power in a provincial town, reflecting the general situation in the country. What is important in many ways is the typical figure of the mayor of Worms-Clovelin, a clever politician who strives to please everyone and be in good standing in Paris.

  The central episode of the second part of the tetralogy, “The Willow Mannequin,” is an image of Bergeret’s first decisive act, which previously manifested itself only in statements.

  Bergeret's wife, “grumpy and grumpy,” irritated by her husband’s impracticality, appears in the novel as the embodiment of militant philistinism. She places a willow mannequin for her dresses in Bergeret's cramped office. This mannequin becomes a symbol of life's inconveniences. When Bergeret, who came home at an inopportune time, finds his wife in the arms of his student Jacques Roux, he breaks up with his wife and throws the hated mannequin into the yard.

  In the third part of the tetralogy, “The Violet Ring,” the family scandal in the Bergeret house is overshadowed by more serious events.

  After the death of the Bishop of Tourcoing, his place becomes vacant. A struggle erupts in the city for the possession of the amethyst ring, a symbol of episcopal power. Although the most worthy candidate is Abbot Lanteigne, he is bypassed by the clever Jesuit Guitrel. The fate of vacancies is decided in the capital, in the ministry. There, Guitrel’s supporters “send” a certain courtesan, who pays the highest officials with intimate services to make the desired decision.

  The almost grotesque story of Guitrel's attainment of the episcopacy; The ring allows the novelist to imagine the ins and outs of the mechanism of the state machine.

  France also exposes the technology of fabricating the “case,” that is, the Dreyfus case. Officials from the military department, careerists and lazy people, servile, envious and impudent, grossly falsified the “case”, “created the most vile and vile thing that can only be done with pen and paper, as well as demonstrating anger and stupidity.”

  Bergeret moves to the capital (the novel “Mr. Bergeret in Paris”), where he is offered a chair at the Sorbonne. Here France's satire develops into a pamphlet. It seems to take the reader into a theater of masks. Before us is a motley gallery of anti-Dreyfusards, two-faced people hiding their true essence under the masks of aristocrats, financiers, high officials, bourgeois, and military men.

  In the finale, Bergeret becomes a staunch opponent of the anti-Dreyfusards; he seems to be France's alter ego. In response to the accusation that the Dreyfusards allegedly “shaken the national defense and damaged the country’s prestige abroad,” Bergeret proclaims the main thesis: “... The authorities persisted, patronizing the monstrous lawlessness that swelled every day thanks to the lies with which they tried to cover it up.” .

  At the beginning of the century: new horizons

  At the beginning of the new century, France's skepticism and irony are combined with the search for positive values. Like Zola, France shows interest in the socialist movement.

  The writer, who does not accept violence, calls the Commune a “monstrous experiment,” approves of the possibility of achieving social justice, of the socialist doctrine that responded to the “instinctive aspirations of the masses.”

  In the last part of the tetralogy, the episodic figure of the socialist carpenter Rupar appears, into whose mouth France puts the following words: “... Socialism is the truth, it is also justice, it is also good, and everything just and good will be born from it like an apple from apple trees."

  In the early 1900s, France's views became more radical. He joins the socialist party and is published in the socialist newspaper L'Humanité. The writer participates in the creation of people's universities, the purpose of which is to intellectually enrich workers and introduce them to literature and art. France responds to the revolutionary events of 1905 in Russia: he becomes an activist in the Society of Friends of the Russian People, and stands in solidarity with Russian democracy fighting for freedom; condemns Gorky's arrest.

  France's journalism of the early 1900s, marked by radical sentiments, compiled a collection with a characteristic title - “To better times"(1906).

  It was in the early 1900s that a vivid image of a worker appeared in France’s work - the hero of the story “Crankebil” (1901)

  Krenkebil": fate " little man». This story is one of the few works of France, in the center of which is not an intellectual, but a commoner - a greengrocer walking around the streets of the capital with a cart. He is chained to his cart, like a slave to a galley, and, being arrested, is primarily concerned with the fate of the cart. His life is so poor and wretched that even prison awakens positive emotions in him.

  Before us is a satire not only on justice, but also on the entire government system. Policeman number sixty-four, who unjustly arrested Krenkebil, is a cog in this system (the policeman thought that the greengrocer had insulted him). Chief Justice Burrish rules against Krenkebil, contrary to the facts, because “police number sixty-four is a representative state power" The law is served least of all by a court that wraps its verdict in vaguely pompous words, incomprehensible to the unfortunate Krenkebil, who is depressed by the pomp of the trial.

  A stay in prison, even if short-lived, breaks the fate of the “little man.” Krenkebil, released from prison, becomes a suspicious person in the eyes of his clients. His affairs are going from bad to worse. He goes down. The ending of the story is bitterly ironic. Krenkebil dreams of returning to prison, where it was warm, clean and regularly fed. The hero sees this as the only way out of his difficult situation. But the policeman, to whom he throws abusive words at the elephant in the face, expecting to be arrested for this, only waves Krenkebil away,

  In this story, France threw out his message to society: “I accuse!” The words of L.N. Tolstoy, who appreciated the French writer, are known: “Anatole France captivated me with his Krenkebil.” Tolstoy translated the story for his “Reading Circle” series, addressed to peasants.

  “On the White Stone”: a journey into the future. At the beginning of the new century, in an atmosphere of growing interest in socialist theories, a need arose to look into the future and predict trends in social development. Anltol France also paid tribute to these sentiments by writing the utopian novel “On a White Stone” (1904).

  The novel is based on dialogue. The unique “frame” of the novel is formed by the conversations of the characters - participants in archaeological excavations in Italy. One of them is indignant at the vices of modernity: these are colonial wars, the cult of profit, incitement to chauvinism and national hatred, contempt for “inferior races”, human life itself.
  The novel contains the insert story “By Gates of Horn, Go by Gates of Ivory.”
  The hero of the story finds himself in 2270, when people are “no longer barbarians,” but have not yet become “wise men.” Power belongs to the proletariat, in life there is “more light and beauty than there was before, in the life of the bourgeoisie.” Everyone is working, the depressing social contrasts of the past have been eliminated. However, the equality finally achieved is more like “equalization”. People are unified, do not have surnames, but only first names, wear almost the same clothes, their houses of the same type resemble geometric cubes. France, with his insight, understands that achieving perfection both in society and in relationships between people is nothing more than an illusion. “Human nature,” argues one of the heroes, “is alien to the feeling of perfect happiness. It cannot be easy, and strenuous effort does not happen without fatigue and pain.”
  
  

  "Penguin Island": history in the mirror of satire

  The decline of the social movement in the second half of the 1900s, after the end of the Dreyfus affair, led France to disillusionment with radical ideas, and politics as such. The year 1908 was marked for the writer with the publication of two of his works, polar in tone and style. They were new evidence of how wide the creative range of Anatoly France is. At the beginning of 1908, France's two-volume work dedicated to Joan of Arc was published.

  In world history there are great, iconic figures who become heroes of fiction and art. These are Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Peter I, Napoleon and others. Among them is Joan of Arc, who has become the national myth of France. There is a lot of mysterious, almost miraculous in her fate. The name of Joan of Arc has become not only a symbol of heroism and a source of national pride , but also the object of heated ideological debate.

  In the two-volume book “The Life of Joan of Arc”, France acts as a writer and as a learned historian. France based his work on a whole layer of carefully studied documents. Combining sober analysis with “critical imagination”, the writer sought to clear the image of Joan of all sorts of conjectures and legends , ideological layers.France's research was relevant and timely, since it opposed clerical propaganda and the explosion of “exalted patriotism,” as well as the active use of the image of the “warrior maiden,” which was presented in the spirit of “hagiography,” France defined the greatness of Jeanne with a certain formula: “When everyone.” thought about herself, she thought about everyone.”

  The Rise and Fall of Penguin: A Satirical Allegory. France's appeal to history in the famous book “Penguin Island” (1908) was relevant. In the history of world literature, there are striking examples when allegory and fantasy acted as means of creating works of large socio-historical scale. Such are “Gargantua and Pantagruel” by Rabelais, “Gulliver’s Travels” by Swift, “The History of a City” by Saltykov-Shchedrin.

  In the history of Penguinia one can easily discern the stages of French national history, which France clears of myths and legends. And France writes witty, cheerfully, giving free rein to his wild imagination. In “Penguin Island” the writer uses many new techniques, immersing the reader in the elements of comedy, grotesque, and parody. The beginning of the penguin story is ironic,

  The blind priest, Saint Mael, mistakes the penguins living on the island for people and baptizes the birds. Penguins gradually learn norms of behavior, morals and value orientations people: one penguin sinks its teeth into its defeated rival, another “breaks a woman’s head with a huge stone.” In a similar way they “create law, establish property, establish the foundations of civilization, the foundations of society, laws...”

  On the pages of the book dedicated to the Middle Ages, France makes fun of various kinds of myths glorifying feudal rulers, who appear in the novel in the form of dragons; makes fun of legends about saints and laughs at churchmen. Speaking of the recent past, he does not even spare Napoleon; the latter is represented in the form of the militarist Trinco. The episode of Doctor Obnubile's voyage to New Atlantis (which means the United States) and Gigantopolis (New York) is also significant.

  The Case of Eighty Thousand Armfuls of Hay. In the sixth chapter, entitled “Modern Times,” France moves on to modern events - the Dreyfus case is reproduced, which the novelist narrates in a satirical vein. The object of denunciation is the military and corrupt legal proceedings.

  War Minister Gretok has long hated the Jew Piro (Dreyfus) and, having learned about the disappearance of eighty thousand armfuls of hay, concludes: Piro stole them in order to “sell them cheaply” not to anyone, but to the sworn enemies of the penguins - the dolphins. Gretok starts a lawsuit against Piro. There is no evidence, but the Minister of War orders to find it, because “justice demands it.” “This process is simply a masterpiece,” says Gretok, “created out of nothing.” The true kidnapper and thief Lubeck de la Dacdulenx (in the Dreyfus case - Esterhazy) is a count of a noble family, related to the Draconids themselves. In this regard, it should be whitewashed. The trial against Piro is fabricated.

  The novel reveals the contours of an almost Kafkaesque absurdity: the obsequious and omnipresent Gretok collects tons of waste paper around the world, called “evidence,” but no one even unpacks these bales,

  Colomban (Zola), “a short, myopic man with a gloomy face,” “the author of one hundred and sixty volumes of Penguin sociology” (the “Routon-Macquart” cycle), the most hardworking and respected of writers, comes to Piro’s defense. The crowd begins to hound the noble Columbin. He finds himself in the dock because he dared to encroach on the honor of the national army and the security of Penguinia.

  Subsequently, another character intervenes in the course of events, Bido-Koky, “the poorest and happiest of astronomers.” Far from earthly affairs, completely absorbed in celestial problems and starry landscapes, he descends from his observatory, built on an old water pump, to take the side of Colomban. In the image of the eccentric astronomer, some features of France himself appear.

  "Penguin Island" shows France's noticeable disappointment in the socialists who declared themselves champions of "social justice." Their leaders - comrades Phoenix, Sapor and Larine (real faces can be discerned behind them) - are just self-interested politicians.

  The final, eighth book of the novel is entitled “A History Without End.”

  In Penguin there is enormous material progress, its capital is a gigantic city, and where power is in the hands of billionaires obsessed with hoarding. The population is split into two parties: trade and bank employees and industrial workers. The former receive substantial salaries, while the latter suffer poverty. Since the proletarians are powerless to change their fate, the anarchists intervene. Their terrorist attacks ultimately lead to the destruction of the Pilgvin civilization. Then a new city is built on its ruins, which is destined for a similar fate. France's conclusion is gloomy: history moves in a circle, civilization, having reached its apogee, dies, only to be reborn and repeat previous mistakes.

  Late France: autumn of the patriarch

  “The Gods Thirst”: Lessons from the Revolution. After “Penguin Island” a new period of France’s creative quest begins. The satirical fantasy about Penguin is followed by the novel The Gods Thirst (1912), written in a traditional realistic vein. But both books are internally connected. Reflecting on the character and driving forces of history, France comes close to a fateful milestone in the life of France - the revolution of 1789-1794.

  The Gods Thirst is one of France's best novels. A dynamic plot, free from overload with ideological disputes, a vivid historical background, psychologically reliable characters of the main characters - all this makes the novel one of the most readable works writer.

  The novel takes place in 1794, during the last period of the Jacobin dictatorship. Main character- young, talented artist Evariste Gamelin, Jacobin, devoted to the high ideals of the revolution, a gifted painter, he strives to capture on his canvases the spirit of the times, the pathos of sacrifice, and exploits in the name of ideals. Gamelin portrays Orestes, the hero of ancient drama, who, obeying the will of Apollo, kills his mother Clytemnestra, who took the life of his father. The gods forgive him this crime, but people do not, since by his own act Orestes renounced human nature and became inhuman.

  Gamelin himself is an incorruptible and selfless man. He is poor, forced to stand in lines for bread and sincerely wants to help the poor. Gamlen is convinced that it is necessary to fight against speculators and traitors, and there are many of them.

  The Jacobins are merciless, and Gamelin, appointed a member of the revolutionary tribunal, turns into an obsessed fanatic. Death sentences are issued without any special investigation. Innocent people are being sent to the guillotine. The country is gripped by an epidemic of suspicion and is flooded with denunciations.

  The principle “the end justifies the means” is expressed by one of the members of the Convention in the cynical formula: “For the happiness of the people, we will be like highway robbers.” In an effort to eradicate the vices of the old regime, the Jacobins condemned “old men, young men, masters, servants.” Not without horror, one of his inspirations talks about the “saving, holy spirit.”

  France's sympathies are given in the novel to the aristocrat Brotto, an intelligent and educated man ruined by the revolution. It belongs to the same type as Bonard or Bergeret. A philosopher, an admirer of Lucretius, he does not part with his book “On the Nature of Things” even on the way to the guillotine. Brotto does not accept fanaticism, cruelty, hatred; he is benevolent to people, ready to help them. He does not like clerics, but he provides a corner in his closet to the homeless monk Longmar. Upon learning of Gamelin's appointment as a member of the tribunal, Brotto predicts: "He is virtuous - he will be terrible."

  At the same time, it is obvious to France: terror is not only the fault of the Jacobins, but also a sign of the immaturity of the people.

  When the Thermidorian coup took place in the summer of 1794, yesterday's judges who sent people to the guillotine suffered the same fate. Hamelin did not escape this fate.

  The finale of the novel shows Paris in the winter of 1795: “equality before the law gave rise to a “kingdom of rogues.” Profiters and speculators are thriving. The bust of Marat is broken, portraits of his killer Charlotte Corday are in vogue. Elodie; Gamlen's beloved quickly finds a new lover.

  Today, France's book is perceived not only as a condemnation of the Jacobin terror, but also as a warning novel, a prophetic novel. It seems that France predicted the great terpop of the 1930s in Russia.

  "Rise of the Angels" France returns to the theme of revolution in the novel The Revolt of the Angels (1914). At the heart of the novel, which tells about the rebellion of angels against Jehovah God, is the idea that replacing one ruler with another will not give anything, that violent revolutions are meaningless. Not only is the management system flawed, but the human race itself is also imperfect in many ways, and therefore it is necessary to eradicate envy and the lust for power nesting in the souls of people.

  Last decade: 1914 - 1924. The novel "Rise of Angels" was completed on the eve of the First World War. The disasters of war stunned the writer. France was overwhelmed by the rise of patriotic feelings, and the writer published a collection of articles “On the Glorious Path” (1915), imbued with love for his native country and hatred of the German aggressors. He later admitted that at that time he found himself “in the grip of infectious exaltation.”

  Gradually, France reconsiders his attitude towards the war and moves to an anti-militarist position. About a writer who is politically active, newspapers write: “In him we again find Monsieur Bergeret.” He identifies with the Clarte group, led by A. Barbusse. In 1919, Anatole France, as the leader of French intellectuals, condemned the Entente intervention against Soviet Russia.

  “A beautiful gray-bearded old man,” a master, a living legend, France, despite his years, surprises with his energy. He expresses sympathy for the new Russia, writes that “light comes from the East”, declares solidarity with left-wing socialists.

  At the same time, in 1922, like many Western intellectuals, he protested against the trial of the Socialist Revolutionaries, seeing in this the Bolsheviks’ intolerance of any opposition and dissent.

  France's creativity recent years- this is a summary. After a break of almost forty years, the writer returns to memoir-autobiographical prose, work on which he began in the 1880s (“The Book of My Friend,” 1885; “Pierre Nozières,” 1899). In the new books - “Little Pierre” (1919) and “Life in Bloom” (1922) - France recreates the world of childhood so dear to him.

  He writes about his autobiographical hero: “I mentally enter his life, and it is a pleasure to transform into a boy and a young man who have long been gone.”

  In 1921, A. France was awarded the Nobel Prize for “brilliant literary achievements, marked by sophistication of style, deeply suffered humanism and a truly Gallic temperament.”

  France managed to celebrate his 80th birthday. He had a hard time experiencing the painful and inexorable loss of strength. The writer died on October 12, 1924. He, like Hugo in his time, was given a national funeral.

  France's poetics: “the art of thinking”

  Intellectual prose. The genre range of France's prose is very wide, but his element is intellectual prose. France developed the traditions of writers and philosophers of the 18th century, Diderot and especially Voltaire. A thinker with a capital T, France, despite his highest authority and education, was a stranger to snobbery. In terms of his artistic outlook and temperament, he was close to the enlighteners and persistently defended the thesis about the “educational” function of literature. Even at the beginning of his writing career, he was perceived as “an enlightened writer who absorbed the intellectual work of the century.” France saw “art forms in constant motion, in continuous formation.” He had acute feeling history, a sense of time, an understanding of its demands and challenges.

  France argued "the art of thinking." He was fascinated by the poetry of knowledge of the world, the triumph of truth in the clash with false points of view. He believed that the "exquisite history of the human mind", its ability to debunk illusions and prejudices, could itself be the subject of artistic attention.

  Impressionistic manner. The writer himself, speaking about the structure of his works, used the expression “mosaic”, since in them “politics and literature are mixed.” Working on a work of art, France usually did not interrupt his collaboration in periodicals. For him, journalism and fiction internally connected, interdependent.

  Fransov’s “mosaic” is not chaotic; it has its own logic. The text of the works includes extra-plot elements, inserted short stories (for example, in “Thais”, in books about Coignard, in “Modern History”, in “Penguin Island”). A similar organization of narration is also found in Apuleius, Cervantes, Fielding, Gogol, etc. In French literature at the turn of the century, this form reflected the aesthetic trends of a new direction - impressionism.

  A.V. Lunacharsky called France a “great impressionist.” France brought prose closer to poetry and painting, and applied impressionistic techniques in verbal art, which manifested itself in a tendency towards a sketchy style. In the book “Life in Bloom” he expressed the idea that the finished painting has “dryness, coldness”, and in the sketch there is “more inspiration, feeling, fire”, therefore the sketch is “more truthful, more vital”.

  France's intellectual prose did not imply an exciting plot with intrigue. But this still did not stop the writer from skillfully capturing the vicissitudes of life, for example, in such works as “Thais”, “The Gods Thirst”, “The Revolt of the Angels”. This largely explains their popularity among the general reader.

  "Double-planeness" of France's prose. In France's works, two interconnected planes can be distinguished: ideological and eventual. Thus, they are clearly revealed in “Modern History”. The ideological plan is the discussions that Bergere conducts throughout the novel with his opponents, friends, and acquaintances. To understand the full depth of France's thought, its nuances, an inexperienced reader must look into the historical and philological commentary on his texts. The second plan is the event plan - this is what happens to the French characters. Often the ideological plan plays a greater role than the event plan.

  Word artist. France was Flaubert's heir as master of style. His precise phrase is full of meaning and emotion, it contains irony and mockery, lyricism and grotesqueness. The thoughts of France, who knows how to write clearly about complex things, often result in aphoristic judgments. Here he is a continuer of the traditions of La Rochefoucauld and La Bruyère. In an essay on Maupassant, France wrote: “The three greatest virtues of a French writer are clarity, clearness and clearness.” A similar aphorism can be applied to France himself.

  France is a master of dialogue, which is one of the most expressive elements of his style. In his books, the clash of points of view of the characters is a way of discovering the truth.

  In his intellectual prose, France anticipated some important genre and stylistic trends in 20th century literature. with its philosophical and educational beginning, the desire to influence not only the heart and soul of the reader, but also his intellect. It's about about philosophical novels and parable-allegorical works that give artistic expression to some philosophical postulates, in particular existentialism (F. Kafka, J. Sartre, A. Camus, etc.). This also applies to “intellectual drama” (G. Ibsen, B. Shaw), parable drama (B. Brecht), drama of the absurd (S. Beckett, E. Ionesco, partly E. Albee),

  France in Russia. Like his famous compatriots - Zola, Maupassant, Rolland, symbolist poets - France early received recognition from Russia.

  During a short stay in Russia in 1913, he wrote: “As for Russian thought, so fresh and so deep, the Russian soul, so sympathetic and so poetic by its very nature, I have long been imbued with them, I admire them and love their".

  In the difficult conditions of the Civil War, M. Gorky, who highly valued France, published World Literature in his publishing house in 1918-1920. several of his books. Then a new collection of works by France (1928-1931) appeared in 20 volumes, edited and with an introductory article by A. V. Lunacharsky. The perception of writers in Russia was succinctly defined by the poet M. Kuzmin: “France is a classic and lofty image of the French genius.”

  Literature

  Literary texts

  France A. Collected Works; at 8 t./A. France;lod general, ed. E. A. Gunsta, V. A. Dynnik, B. G. Reizova. - M., 1957-1960.

  France A. Collected Works; in 4 t./A. France — M., I9S3— 1984.

  France A. Selected works/A. France; afterword L. Tokareva. - M., 1994. - (Ser. “Nobel Prize Laureates”).

  Criticism. Tutorials

  Yulmetova S.F. Anatole France and some questions of the evolution of realism / SF. Yulmetova, Saratov, 1975.

  Fried Y. Anatole France and his time / Y. Fried. - M., 1975.