Treaty of Paris where it was signed. Treaty of Paris signed

On March 30, 1856, at a congress in Paris, a peace treaty was signed between coalition on the one hand, which included many allied countries, and Russian Empire. The hostilities, which lasted about two and a half years, could not lead to the desired result for any of the conflicting parties.

In case of continuation of hostilities in which no one was interested, the coalition suffered heavy losses, fighting, in fact, far from their territories. Constantly landing troops was too costly and energy-intensive. The Russian Empire did not want to lose its grip on European and Black Sea borders, and if the war continued, there was a possibility of losing influence in these territories.

Brief description of the Crimean War

The cause of the conflict is the desire of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I to separate from the weakened Ottoman Empire Balkan territories, supporting the struggle of the Orthodox Slavs against the influence of the Muslim empire. The conflict began to develop Great Britain, in whose interests was it to oust Russia from Europe and knock it off its dominant position in the Russian-Turkish war. The British were supported by France, in the person of Napoleon III, who wanted to strengthen his power through “revenge” for 1815. (Russian capture of Paris). Several more countries joined the alliance and supported the military conflict. Also participating on the side of the coalition under the influence of Turkey were: the North Caucasian Imamate, the Circassians and the Principality of Abkhazia. Neutrality was occupied by the Kingdom of Prussia, the Swedish-Norwegian Union and the Austrian Empire. The indecisiveness of Russian military leaders made it possible for coalition troops to land on the territory of Crimea, from where the Allied army began its advance to the East. The result of the war was the Treaty of Paris.

Participating countries

At the Paris Congress, representatives of the following countries arrived from the coalition: Great Britain, France, the Ottoman Empire, Austria, Prussia and the Kingdom of Sardinia. The second side was represented by the Russian Empire without support or any allies.

Representatives

Each side nominated two diplomats. The meetings of the congress were chaired by the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, Alexander Walewski.

Main articles of the agreement

In Article III of the Paris Route Russian Emperor pledged to return Turkey city ​​of Kars and other Ottoman possessions occupied by Russian troops.

In Article XI it was announced that from now on the Black Sea is neutral, which implies a ban on the passage of military vessels through these waters (i.e. this article deprive Russia of its naval fleet).

In XIII it is prohibited to keep in coastal areas military docks and arsenals, for the rapid deployment of a naval flotilla.

Article XXI states that the lands given by Russia go to the Principality of Moldova under Turkish rule.

Article XXII states that the Moldavian and Wallachian principalities remain under Turkish rule.

In Article XXVIII, the Principality of Serbia also remains under Turkish rule.

Also into the politics of the principalities and their independence Türkiye has no right to interfere, according to agreements with European countries.

Result of negotiations

The result was humiliating for Russia, since it was deprived of one of its most significant advantages - the most powerful fleet on the Black Sea. The surrender of the conquered territories from the Russian Empire by the coalition was not such upsetting news as the deprivation of one of the trump cards in waging a war with the Ottoman Empire.

Articles contested by Russia

At the time of signing the Paris Peace Treaty, none of the articles could be challenged. But in 1871 London Convention It was possible to cancel some of the articles by drawing up a new agreement.

Thanks to the new treaty, both Russia and Turkey had the right to have any number of navies in the Black Sea. This was a real diplomatic victory for Russia.

Document lifetime

The Paris Peace Treaty existed in the form in which it was signed for 15 years. During this time, the Russian Foreign Minister A. M. Gorchakov, was able to revise the articles of the document and find convincing arguments for creating a new treatise.

Reflection in history

The Paris Peace Treaty changed the situation in Europe. Russia was placed within strict limits, which limited its capabilities in the war with the Ottoman Empire, even if it had weakened. A system built on the terms of the Russian Empire since 1815. (Vienna Treaty), completely collapsed. Karl Marx, as a contemporary of what was happening, wrote the following: “ Supremacy in Europe passed from St. Petersburg to Paris».

Bibliography:

• State publication of political literature - “Collection of treaties between Russia and other states 1856-1917” - Moscow edition - 1952, 450 p.

155 years ago, a document appeared that determined not only the foreign, but also the internal policy of European countries for many years. March 30, 1856 in the capital of France, Count A.F. Orlov and his foreign diplomat colleagues signed the Treaty of Paris, which ended the protracted Crimean War of 1853-1856.

The outbreak of military events did not foretell any danger for Russia. Turkey, nicknamed the “sick man” and weakened by internal squabbles, could not alone provide worthy resistance to the Russian army, and the end of 1853. was marked by a series of brilliant victories of Russian weapons. The brightest of them was the naval battle of Sinop, in which Admiral Nakhimov destroyed the Turkish squadron. After this defeat, England and France could no longer remain aloof from the events taking place in the East and were forced to enter the war on the side of Turkey. This subsequently predetermined the success of the Allies.

Despite Turkey's weakness, its place in European foreign policy was very important. The “sick man” was necessary for the European powers as a certain buffer preventing Russia from penetrating through the waters of the Black Sea into the Mediterranean Sea. The existing limited sea communication between Russia and Europe was beneficial to foreign powers. One can even say that at this time Russia was laying claim to joining the narrow circle of “world powers”, and England and France - the international hegemons of that time - resisted this in every possible way.

Austria was also drawn into the complex relations between the three countries. She sought to strengthen her position in the Balkans (including at the expense of Turkey) and not allow the Russians there, who had designs on these territories and covered themselves with the protection of the fraternal Slavic peoples. This tangle of contradictions

Defense of Sevastopol - fragment of a picture
Franz Roubaud

It spiraled throughout the entire 19th century, and the Crimean War became its kind of denouement (although the conflict was finally resolved only at the beginning of the First World War).

The coalition of opponents attacked Russian troops from all fronts. English ships unexpectedly appeared in the White Sea, where they unsuccessfully fired at the Solovetsky Monastery, which refused to surrender. Even more sudden was the attack on Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, whose garrison was able to repel the attack of the joint Anglo-French landing force. However, the main hostilities took place in the south of Russia and primarily in Crimea.

The allied units gradually concentrated their forces on the peninsula and tightened the ring around the main center Russian forces in the region - Sevastopol. And while it was not possible to organize a complete blockade, the allies clashed with Russian units in separate battles, often winning victories. But the losses they suffered (including due to the rapidly spreading cholera) were very significant. But all this did not save Sevastopol from the blockade.

The defense of the city lasted 11 months, after which the city’s defenders had to surrender and capitulate. Fierce battles, including the legendary Battle of Malakhov Kurgan, ended in victory for the Allies. September 11, 1855 The Anglo-French army entered the destroyed city. However, the benefit from the victory was not as absolute as the invaders had hoped: while the battle for the main Black Sea port was going on, Russian troops were able to take a strategic point in

Eastern Turkey - the city of Kars, which jeopardized the security of Turkey. This move saved Russia from concluding a shameful defeatist peace.

At the end of 1855, when the fighting had subsided somewhat, a rumor spread in the highest echelons of power that peace negotiations had begun between Paris and St. Petersburg. The initiator was the French side itself. After the death of Emperor Nicholas I, the French ruler Napoleon III conveyed to the new Emperor Alexander II, through the Saxon envoy in St. Petersburg, his deep condolences regarding the death of “his friend” - the father of Alexander Nicholas I. Napoleon also added that the war was not deliberate, but happened only as a result of “ some insurmountable circumstances,” and the French ruler did not want her.

At the same time, Russian Foreign Minister Nesselrode and the envoy in Vienna began official correspondence with their French colleagues, where issues of the post-war structure of Europe were discussed in detail. But contacts soon broke down. This is due to Austria, which did not officially take part in the war, but closely followed the events. The Austrian emperor feared that the war would end in a Franco-Russian compromise, and that after the signing of the final treaty his country would not receive any benefit at all. Austrians

They sent the Russian side an ultimatum with preconditions for peace; if it refused, Russia would be drawn into another war. In addition, the Austrian document was supported by England and France.

The ultimatum consisted of several points. Russia had to stop providing patronage to the Danube principalities - Moldavia and Wallachia - and agree to a new border in Bessarabia. According to the proposed project, Russia would be deprived of access to the Danube. The most painful point was the point according to which the Black Sea became neutral, and entry into it for military ships was strictly prohibited. And, finally, Russia was deprived of the right to patronize the Orthodox population of Turkey; now the care of the Christian inhabitants of the Muslim country was entrusted to all the allied great powers. Moreover, according to the additional clause of the ultimatum, others could subsequently be added to these main four conditions.

The situation in which Russia found itself was truly stalemate. Either she had to make unprecedented concessions that would overthrow her from the pedestal of the great powers, or refuse the ultimatum, which would lead to Austria's entry into the war and further devastation, and possibly even more serious losses. At two meetings in the palace, despite some opposition from supporters of the former emperor's policies, it was decided to agree to the demands of the allies. The emperor and his entourage understood the difficulties that the devastated and torn country would have to face if hostilities continued.

Nesselrode K.V., minister
foreign affairs of Russia

January 4, 1856 Nesselrode notified the Austrian side of Alexander II's consent. At a meeting of representatives of the two countries, a protocol was signed in which the points of the ultimatum were declared preconditions for a peace treaty, and the meeting of the representatives for negotiating peace was moved to Paris.

On February 25, the Paris Congress began in the capital of France. Representatives from Russia, France, England, Austria, Sardinia and Turkey took part in its work. Later diplomats from Prussia also joined. Russia’s task was extremely clear, but not easy: by playing on the contradictions that existed between the allied powers, primarily between France and England, to ensure that the agreement was not signed on all of the specified points of the ultimatum and to prevent the introduction of new conditions that would infringe on Russia’s interests.

However, the Allies, without knowing it, contributed to the achievement of these goals. From the very beginning of the Congress, the British and Austrian sides found themselves in opposition to France. Napoleon III, who pursued the goal of bringing his state to a leading position in Europe and becoming a world “hegemon,” played a double game. He simultaneously tried to remain on friendly terms with England and Austria and to get closer to Russia to further counteract English influence on the continent.

Adhering to such double standards, France did not want the complete humiliation of Russia after the Crimean War and proposed limiting the peace treaty to only the above points. Thanks to this, the Russian side managed to avoid an unpleasant discussion of the Polish issue, as well as to prevent territorial losses in the Caucasus and the announcement Sea of ​​Azov neutral waters (where warships could not be located), which England insisted on.

The final version, signed on March 30, dealt a blow to Russia’s great power claims and undermined its influence in the Balkans and the Middle East. Particularly painful were the articles on the “neutralization” of the Black Sea and military shipping in the Black Sea straits. However, the territorial losses were not so great: only the Danube Delta and part of Bessarabia went to Moldova.

The question of a hegemon in Europe remained open. After the Crimean War and subsequent events in Europe, not only England and France, but also Prussia claimed this role. The consequences of this rivalry are only too well known to contemporaries.

Napoleon III, whose army was the main force in the Crimea, decided to end the war with the fall of Sevastopol, but Palmerston objected to this, fearing the excessive strengthening of France. He insisted on continuing the war and implementing his plan to divide Russia, hoping in this way to raise the prestige of England in the eyes of European states and the peoples of the East.

At the beginning of 1856, the editorial pages of the influential American newspaper New York Daily Tribune analyzed the military campaign of the past year. The author of these publications was F. Engels. In one of his articles, he wrote: “Concentrate all the forces of France, England and Sardinia against one point in the Crimea... fight for this point for eleven whole months and, as a result, capture only half of it... The system of warfare that the Western powers used in the fight against Russia has been a complete failure. This year’s campaign, if such a campaign takes place, cannot be carried out according to the plan that has been followed until now.”

The company of 1855 was the last, and based on its results it was possible to sum up the results of the entire war. Tsarist Russia was defeated. It was a consequence of the general technical and economic backwardness of the autocratic serfdom country in comparison with the main capitalist powers of Western Europe and the result of the superiority of the military forces of the allied coalition. The capture of Sevastopol satisfied the vanity of Napoleon III. He could consider the main goals of the war achieved. The weapons of France covered themselves with glory, revenge was taken for the defeat in 1812-1815, and the position of the emperor within the country and the empire in Europe was strengthened. Russia's power in the South was greatly undermined: it lost its main Black Sea fortress and lost its fleet. the continuation of the struggle and the further weakening of Russia did not meet the interests of Napoleon; it would only benefit England.

At the end of 1855, when hostilities in the Crimea and the Caucasus had already ceased, rumors began to circulate in political circles and high society salons of European capitals that some mysterious negotiations had begun between Paris and St. Petersburg. These rumors had a basis in reality. The initiative for contacts came from the French side.

After the death of Nicholas I, Napoleon III wished that the new Russian sovereign would know how much the Emperor of the French sympathized with the death of his “friend,” for whom he allegedly always had the most sincere respect. As for the war between France and Russia, it was the result of a dramatic combination of circumstances, which he never ceases to regret. These feelings of Napoleon were transmitted through the Saxon envoy in Paris L. von Seebach, son-in-law of Chancellor K. W. Nesselrode, to the capital of Russia.

But these contacts soon broke down. The Austrians somehow found out about them. For Austria, this circumstance served as an impetus for more active actions. Emperor Franz Joseph and Prime Minister K. F. Buol feared that the European conflict would end without their due participation, and even through a Russian-French compromise. On the eve of the new year, 1856, the Austrian envoy V.L. Esterhazy came to Nesselrode and conveyed his government’s ultimatum to Russia to accept the preliminary conditions for peace. The deadline to respond was January 6 (18). In case of refusal, Austria will be forced to sever relations with Russia.

The ultimatum consisted of five points. The first spoke of the abolition of Russian patronage of the Danube principalities and the drawing of a new border in Bessarabia, as a result of which Russia was deprived of access to the Danube. The second paragraph stipulated the conditions for the implementation of freedom of navigation on the Danube. The most important and painful point for Russia was the third point, according to which the Black Sea was declared neutral, entry into it was closed to military ships, and it was forbidden to have any naval arsenals on its shores. The fourth point replaced Russian patronage of the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire with a collective guarantee by the great powers of “the rights and benefits of Christians without violating the independence and dignity of the Turkish government.” Finally, the fifth point stated that the powers “grant themselves the right” to make new demands “for the common benefit of Europe... in addition to the four previous ones.”

It should be noted that the conditions of the Allies, including the unpleasant third point, did not come as a complete surprise to the tsarist government. A. M. Gorchakov regularly reported to St. Petersburg about the progress of developing the Allied demands. He himself received this information through his secret informants. The leaders of Russian foreign policy, including the Emperor, gradually moved from a position of absolute rejection of the idea of ​​neutralizing the Black Sea to the idea of ​​​​the need to submit to this demand, which began to seem acceptable to them as a starting point in negotiations.

On December 1855 (January 1, 1856) and January 3 (15), 1856, two meetings were held in the Winter Palace, to which Alexander II invited prominent dignitaries of past years. The issue of the Austrian ultimatum was on the agenda. Only one participant, D. N. Bludov, during the first meeting spoke out against accepting the terms of the ultimatum, which, in his opinion, was incompatible with the dignity of Russia as a great power. the people, the speaker believed, would indignantly accept such a disgraceful peace that dishonors Russia. The speech bore the imprint of the views of certain patriotic-minded circles of society, especially Slavophiles and those close to them. Yes, he himself was influenced by his daughter, a court Slavophile. At one time, Count Dmitry Nikolaevich had significant weight at court. this educated person, no stranger to literary interests, held important government posts, and in the 30s he was the Minister of Internal Affairs. However, now he was old, and his opinion was no longer taken into account.

The emotional, but weak in argumentation, speech of the famous figure of Nikolaev’s time did not find a response at the meeting. Bludov's performance was sharply criticized. All other participants in the meetings unequivocally spoke in favor of accepting the presented conditions. A. F. Orlov, M. S. Vorontsov, P. D. Kiselev, P. K. Meyendorff spoke in this spirit. They pointed to the very difficult economic condition of the country, disrupted finances, and the deteriorating situation of the population. especially in the village.

As a result, it was decided to respond to Austria's proposal with consent. At first, however, an attempt was made to accept the ultimatum in a truncated form, that is, without those provisions that were absent in the previous four points - without changing the border in Bessarabia and the possibility of putting forward new demands. But the attempt was unsuccessful. K. F. Buhl told A. M. Gorchakov that the ultimatum must be accepted in its entirety. At the same time, he confirmed his intention to sever relations with Russia if a positive response is not received by the specified deadline.

So, on January 4 (16), 1856, K.V. Neselrode notified V.L. Estergatsi that the Russian emperor accepted five points. On January 20 (February 1) a protocol was signed in Vienna, stating that the “Austrian communiqué” sets out the preliminary conditions for peace and obliges the governments of all interested parties to send representatives to Paris within three weeks to negotiate and conclude a final peace treaty. On February 13 (February 25), meetings of the congress opened in the capital of France, at which Russia was represented by A. F. Orlov and F. I. Brunnov.

The congress was attended by authorized delegates from France, Great Britain, Russia, Austria, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. After everything important questions had already been decided, and representatives of Prussia were admitted. The Russian delegation was represented by prominent diplomats who had extensive experience in conducting complex and complicated negotiations - A. Orlov and F. Brunnov. The French Minister of Foreign Affairs, stepson of Napoleon I and cousin of Napoleon III, Count F. A. Walewski, was represented at the meetings.

At this time, Napoleon III was playing a complex political game. His strategic plans included a revision of the “Viennese treaty system of 1815.” He intended to take a dominant position in the international arena, establish French hegemony in Europe, and become a “super-arbiter” on the continent.

Russian diplomats, based on the situation at the congress, developed the only correct tactic in those conditions - to yield to the allies on those issues on which they act together, and to persist against British proposals if they are not supported by France.

Nesselrode, in a letter to A. Orlov, wrote about the need to use Anglo-French contradictions to soften the terms of the peace treaty with Russia: “France’s insufficient interest in promoting England’s goals pursued in Asia, as well as opening up for French Emperor the prospect of becoming, thanks to alliances, a firm foot on the continent, will be in the hands of our delegates during the conference a means of causing a revolution in the policy of France necessary for England to abandon her warlike plans."

The head of the Russian delegation managed to prevent discussion at the congress of the Polish issue, which was extremely unpleasant for Russia. The success of the Russian commissioners also ended the confrontation with Lord Clarendon, who was unable to implement either the ambitious projects of British diplomacy regarding the Caucasus, which provided for major territorial concessions from Russia, or the extension of the principle of neutralization to the Sea of ​​Azov.

The French delegation did not support the proposals of the British representatives to secede Georgia, Adygea, Crimea and Bessarabia from Russia. Russian diplomats, receiving the support of the French, objected to the discussion of these proposals by the British delegation: the heroic behavior of the Russians in Sevastopol required a respectful attitude in Russia. It is no coincidence that Orlov said that the shadow of Nakhimov and the heroes of Sevastopol was invisibly present at the congress.

The peace treaty was signed on March 18 (30), 1856. It recorded Russia’s defeat in the war. As a result of the abolition of Russian patronage over the Danube principalities and the Sultan's Orthodox subjects, the influence of tsarism in the Middle East and the Balkans was undermined, the international authority of the Russian Empire as a great power decreased, and the “European balance” was significantly disrupted.

The first article of the Treatise of Paris stated:

"From the day of the exchange of ratifications of this treaty, there will be peace and friendship forever between His Majesty the All-Russian Emperor, and Her Majesty the Emperor of the French, Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Her Majesty the King of Sardinia and e.i.v. Sultan - on the other hand, between their heirs and successors, states and subjects."

Articles III and IV described the territorial delimitation plan:

“The All-Russian Emperor undertakes to return to the Sultan the city of Kars with its citadel, as well as other parts of the Ottoman possessions occupied by Russian troops.”

“Their Majesties the Emperor of the French, the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the King of Sardinia and the Sultan undertake to return to His Majesty the All-Russian Emperor the cities and ports: Sevastopol, Balaklava, Kamysh, Evpatoria, Kerch-Epicale, Kinburn, as well as all other places, occupied by Allied forces."

Article 10 and Article 11 were the most difficult to discuss as they affected the future fate of the Black Sea Fleet and the strategically important straits - the Bosporus and Dardanelles:

“The Convention of July 13, 1841, which established the observance of the ancient rule of the Ottoman Empire regarding the closure of the entrance to the Bosporus and Dardanelles, has been subjected to a new consideration by common consent. An act concluded by the high contracting parties in accordance with the above rule is attached to this treaty and will have the same force and effect , as if he were an inseparable part of it." “The Black Sea is declared neutral: entry into the ports and waters of all nations, open to merchant shipping, is formally and forever prohibited to military vessels, both coastal and all other powers, with the only exceptions that are stipulated in Articles XIV and XIX of this treaty. "

The peace treaty, which consisted of 34 articles and one “additional and temporary”, also included conventions on the Dardanelles and Bosphorus straits, Russian and Turkish ships in the Black Sea, and on the demilitarization of the Åland Islands. The most important first convention obliged the Turkish Sultan not to allow any foreign warship into the Black Sea straits, “until the Porta is at peace ....” Now, in the conditions of neutralization of the Black Sea, this rule seemed to be very useful for Russia, protecting the defenseless Black Sea coast from a possible enemy attack. the future will show how well the Straits regime established in 1856 corresponded to Russian interests. Only in 1871 did Russia manage to free itself from the articles of the Treaty of Paris on the neutralization of the Black Sea, which were humiliating for a great power.

“The Eastern question, despite the rivers of blood that it cost Europe, is today even more insoluble than ever before,” wrote the new Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Prince A. M. Gorchakov, at the beginning of 1857.

England, Sardinia, Prussia, Austria and France, on the one hand, and Russia, on the other, took part in the work.

During 1856-1871 The Russian Empire fought for the abolition of restrictions under this agreement. The government did not like the fact that the Black Sea border remained open to sudden deposition. After long negotiations, the incomplete abolition of the articles of the Paris Peace Treaty, namely the lifting of the ban on maintaining a fleet in the Black Sea, took place thanks to the London Convention in 1871.

Crimean War

After the dissolution of all diplomatic and economic relations between Russia and Turkey in 1853, the former occupied the Danube principalities. The Turkish government did not tolerate such an attitude towards itself and on October 4 of the same year declared war. The Russian army was able to push Turkish troops away from the banks of the Danube, as well as repulse their offensive in the Transcaucasus. She coped well with the enemy at sea, who was heading to the very center of events. After such actions, Great Britain and France enter the war. They successfully pass through the Black Sea and surround the enemy army. On March 27, England declares war on Russia, and France does the same the next day. A month later, the Anglo-French army tries to land near Odessa, having previously shelled the populated area with 350 guns. On September 8, 1854, the same troops defeat Russia and stop in Crimea. The siege of Sevastopol begins on October 17. The troop locations numbered about 30 thousand people; The settlement suffered from 5 large-scale bombings. After the French conquest of the southern part of Sevastopol Russian army retreats. Throughout the siege (349 days), the empire tries in every possible way to distract the enemy, but the attempts are unsuccessful. Sevastopol comes under the control of Anglo-French troops.

The Treaty of Paris of 1856, signed on March 18, ended hostilities. It provided for the liberation of the Black Sea (becoming neutral), reducing the Russian fleet to a minimum level. The same obligations were imposed on Turkey. In addition, the Empire remains without the Danube estuary, part of Bessarabia, and power in Serbia, Wallachia and Moldavia.

Treaty of Paris

Due to the tragic resolution of the Crimean conflict for Russia, it is becoming infringed on its rights and interests. Surprisingly, the territorial borders of the Empire were practically not affected. She gave up some islands, principalities and the mouth of the Danube in exchange for cities such as Sevastopol, Kinburn and others. The only downside was that the territories obtained as a result of the peace treaty were besieged by allied forces. What hit Russia hardest was that the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 limited its possessions on the Black Sea, prohibiting it from having a fleet, arsenals, and fortresses.

The agreement influenced the European social situation, the foundations of which were laid in the Vienna Treaties. Paris became the leader of all Europe, and former St. Petersburg was relegated to second place.

Terms of the Paris Peace Treaty

The Treaty of Paris included 34 mandatory and 1 temporary articles. The main conditions are the following:

1. Between the countries concluding the treaty, peace and friendliness now reign.
2. Territories conquered during the conflict will be liberated and returned to their original owners.
3. Russia undertakes to return Kars and other parts of the Ottoman possessions that are now occupied by troops.
4. France and Great Britain undertake to return to the Empire the captured ports and cities: Sevastopol, Evpatoria and others occupied by the Anglo-French army.
5. Russia, France, Great Britain and Sardinia must offer their forgiveness to those who were in any way responsible for the outbreak of hostilities.
6. All parties undertake to immediately return prisoners of war.
7. The Treaty of Paris of 1856 obliges the countries that signed the document to help the allies in the event of an enemy attack; carefully observe the conditions without violating them.
8. If a conflict or disagreement arises between any of the countries that have concluded the treaty, others do not use force to resolve it, giving the opportunity to settle everything peacefully.
9. None of the rulers interferes in the foreign and domestic policies of the neighboring state.
10. The entrance to the Bosphorus and Dardanelles remains closed.
11. The Black Sea becomes neutral; It is prohibited to have a fleet on it.
12. Trade is allowed on the shores of the Black Sea, which is subject only to the relevant department.
13. It is prohibited to have an arsenal on the Black Sea.
14. The number and strength of ships are determined by this agreement and cannot be exceeded.
15. Duties on navigation on the Danube are abolished.
16. An approved team will monitor the cleaning of the river banks, etc.
17. The created commission should subsequently draw up rules for navigation and cargo transportation, remove obstacles for convenient patrolling of the maritime territory.
18. The Coastal Commission will be given the necessary power to ensure that the work it undertakes to do is completed after 2 years.
19. Each country is allowed to have 2 light vessels on the banks of the Danube.
20. The Russian border near Bessarabia is being shifted for convenient navigation along the Danube.
21. Those territories liberated by the Russian Empire will be annexed to Moldova.
22. No one has the right to interfere in the internal politics of the Wallachian and Moldavian principalities.
23. The Ottoman Empire undertakes not to interfere in the politics of the allied countries, leaving them the right to independent rule; leaves complete freedom of choice in religion, trade, navigation and general legislation.

Cancellation of the Paris Peace Treaty

After accepting the Russian-English peace, Russia tried to soften the restrictions, thereby regaining the Black Sea and the opportunity to have a fleet. That is why diplomatic relations flourish at this time. During 1856-1871 The Empire established profitable relations with France: it planned to receive help from Russia in the Austro-French conflict, and the latter counted on French influence in the eastern question.

The Paris Conference, which lasted until 1863, became decisive in Russian-French relations. The countries became noticeably closer and jointly resolved some issues. March 1859 was important for France because a secret treaty was concluded under which the Empire promised to remain neutral in the event of war with Austria. The deterioration of relations is observed during the Polish uprising. As a result of these actions, Russia is improving relations with Prussia.

After strengthening in 1872, Berlin hosted 3 emperors. A convention begins, during which Austria also joins. According to the Berlin Treaty, adopted at this time, the abolition of the articles of the Paris Peace Treaty becomes a matter of time for Russia. She regains her fleet in the Black Sea and lost territories.

This story is old, it is more than a century and a half old, but the geographical names and countries, the mention of which is inevitable when presenting its plot, evoke certain associations with modernity. Crimea, Turkey, Russia, France, Britain - these are the settings for the dramatic events that developed in the middle of the 19th century. All wars end in peace, even the longest and bloodiest ones. Another question is to what extent its terms are beneficial to some countries and humiliating to others. The Peace of Paris was the result of the Crimean War, which was waged against Russia by the combined forces of France, Great Britain and Turkey.

Pre-war situation

In the middle of the century, Europe was experiencing a serious crisis. inside Austria and Prussia could lead to the collapse of these states, moving borders and the collapse of ruling dynasties. The Russian Tsar sent an army to help the Austrian Emperor, which stabilized the situation. It seemed that peace would come for a long time, but it turned out differently.

Revolutionary movements arose in Wallachia and Moldavia. After the entry of Russian and Turkish troops into these areas, a number of controversial issues arose regarding the boundaries of protectorates, the rights of religious communities and Holy places, which ultimately meant a conflict regarding the spheres of influence of the powers adjacent to the Black Sea basin. In addition to the main countries directly interested, other states that did not want to miss out on their geopolitical benefits were also drawn into it - France, Britain and Prussia (which quickly forgot about gratitude for the miraculous salvation of its monarch). The Russian delegation led by Prince. Menshikov did not show the required degree of diplomacy, put forward ultimatum demands and, without achieving results, left Constantinople. At the beginning of June, an invasion of forty thousand Russian corps into the Danube principalities took place. In the fall, the fleets of France and Britain sailed their warships through the Dardanelles, providing military assistance to Turkey. On November 30, the squadron under the command of Ushakov launched a preemptive strike on the Turkish naval forces in Sinop, and the Western powers already directly intervened in the conflict, which came as a surprise to Nicholas I. Contrary to expectations, it turned out to be well prepared. In 1854, the Crimean War began.

War

Waging a land war with Russia seemed risky to the Western powers (Napoleonic campaign was still fresh in memory), and the strategic plan was to strike at the most vulnerable place - the Crimea, using the advantage of naval forces. The poorly developed connection between the peninsula and the central provinces played into the hands of the Anglo-French-Turkish coalition, which made it difficult to supply troops and supply reinforcements. The landing site was Yevpatoria, then a serious clash took place. It turned out that the Russian troops were not sufficiently prepared for war, both in terms of weapons and training. They had to retreat to Sevastopol, the siege of which lasted a year. Given the lack of ammunition, food and other resources, the Russian command managed to organize the defense of the city and quickly build fortifications (initially there were almost none on land). Meanwhile, the Western Allied forces suffered from disease and daring attacks by the defenders of Sevastopol. As the negotiators later noted, the signing of the Paris Peace took place with the invisible participation of the city who died heroically during the defense.

Peace terms

Ultimately, Russia suffered a military defeat. In 1855, during the defense of Sevastopol, Emperor Nicholas I died, and Alexander II inherited the throne. It was clear to the new autocrat that military operations, despite brilliant successes in the Asian theater, were developing unfavorably for Russia. The death of Kornilov and Nakhimov actually decapitated the command, and further retention of the city became problematic. In 1856, Sevastopol was occupied by troops of the Western coalition. The leaders of Britain, France and Turkey drew up a four-point draft agreement, which was accepted by Alexander II. The treaty itself, called the Peace of Paris, was signed on March 30, 1856. It should be noted that the victorious countries, exhausted by a long military campaign, very costly and bloody, took care of the acceptability of its points for Russia. This was facilitated by the victorious actions of our army in the Asian theater, in particular the successful assault on the Kare fortress. The terms of the Paris Peace primarily affected relations with Turkey, which undertook to ensure the rights of the Christian population on its territory, the neutrality of the Black Sea, the withdrawal of two hundred square miles of territory in its favor and the inviolability of its borders.

Peaceful Black Sea

At first glance, the fair demand for the demilitarization of the Black Sea coast in order to avoid further conflicts between countries in fact contributed to the strengthening of Turkey’s position in the region, since the Ottoman Empire reserved the right to have fleets in the Mediterranean and Marmara Seas. The Treaty of Paris also included an annex (convention) concerning straits through which foreign warships were prohibited from passing in peacetime.

End of the terms of the Peace of Paris

Any military defeat leads to a limitation of the capabilities of the defeated side. The Peace of Paris permanently changed the balance of power in Europe that had developed after the signing of the Vienna Treaties (1815), and not in favor of Russia. The war as a whole revealed many shortcomings and defects in the organization of army and naval construction, which prompted the Russian leadership to carry out a number of reforms. After another, this time victorious, Russian-Turkish War (1877-1878), all restrictions on sovereignty and territorial losses were leveled. Thus ended the Peace of Paris. The year 1878 was the date of the signing of the Berlin Treaty, which restored Russia's regional dominance in the Black Sea.