Totemism represents. Totemism, animism, fetishism and magic - the first religions of ancient people
Traditional religions. African traditional religions usually include fetishism, animism, totemism, ancestor worship, etc. Unlike world religions, African traditional religions do not have unified religious texts, their religious norms are not fixed in the scriptures. It is impossible to determine the number of adherents of traditional religions: both Christians and Muslims turn to traditional cults in certain life situations, for example, if necessary, carry out treatment traditional methods from local healers.
Totemism
TOTEMISM is one of the early forms of religion, the essence of which is the belief in the existence of a special kind of mystical connection between any group of people (clan, tribe) and a certain type of animal or plant (less often - natural phenomena and inanimate objects). The name of this form of religious belief comes from the word "ototem", which in the language of the North American Indians Ojibwe means "his kind". During the study of totemism, it was found that its emergence is closely related to the economic activities of primitive man - gathering and hunting.
Totem
TOTEM (ototeman - belonging to a clan, from the language of the North American Indians Ojibwe) - a plant or animal supernaturally connected with the life of a group or individual. In Africa and North America, natural phenomena (rain, thunder, lightning, wind, etc.) also act as totems, which are also often symbolized by animals. Totems can be group (clan), gender (belonging to the men or women of the clan) or individual. In the case of a clan totem, the totem animal is considered the common ancestor of all members of the clan or group who identify with it.
Totemism (Lopukhov, 2013)
TOTEMISM is a complex of beliefs and rituals of primitive peoples associated with ideas about kinship between groups of people (families, clans, tribes) and totems. Animals, plants, stars, even household items acted as the latter among different peoples at different times. The totem was considered as a powerful patron of one or another primitive social group and as a symbol of its internal cohesion. Totemism corresponded to the level of development of society when man was not yet aware of his difference from nature and did not distinguish himself from it.
Totemism (Kirilenko)
TOTEMISM - belief in a supernatural kinship between human groups (clans, tribes) and certain species of animals, less often - plants or even objects; an early form of religious ideas. Disrespect for the totem - the mythical “ancestor” with which each member of the clan considers himself connected, is a crime that entails punishment. A totem is both the animal or plant itself and its sign.
Kirilenko G.G., Shevtsov E.V. Brief philosophical dictionary. M. 2010, p. 381.
Totemism (Podoprigora)
TOTEMISM is an archaic form of religion based on the belief in close family connection between a certain type of animal (less often a plant) - a totem and a generic group. The totem, which is usually thought of as the common ancestor of the clan, gives the name to the totemic group. Totemism is associated with a system of taboo - the prohibition to kill and eat a totemic animal, which was violated during its ritual killing.
Totemism (Frolov)
TOTEMISM (from the word “ototeman”, in the language of the North American Indians of the Ojibwe tribe - its genus) is one of the early forms of religion of primitive society. The term was first used by J. Long (late 18th century). The main thing in totemism is the belief in the common origin and blood affinity of any group of people with a certain type of animal, plant, object or phenomenon. The emergence of totemism is due to primitive economy (hunting, gathering) and ignorance of other connections in society other than consanguineous ones. A totem is an ancestor animal, its image or symbol, as well as a group of people.
Totemism is a religious and social system that was widespread in the past, but still exists today. It is based on totem worship. The term "totem" was first mentioned in the late eighteenth century by Long, and was borrowed from the Ojibwa tribe, where the word totem meant the crest of the clan. A totem was also a name given to a sacred animal to which the clan provided a special cult.
Today, the concept of “totem” refers to a class of objects that is especially worshiped by a social group, phratry, clan, tribe, and sometimes even one individual. In most cases, those who worship the totem call themselves by its name and consider themselves related. There is probably no object in the world that could not act as a totem, but most often people worshiped animals.
The peculiarities of totemism lie in the fact that people perceive natural objects as full-fledged and animated representatives of the world. Many objects, at the same time, were endowed with supernatural qualities. The tribes that adhered to the totemism system had a worldview built on emotional, cultural, mystical and ideological relationships with nature. The following characteristics of totemism are distinguished:
The totem serves as a guardian human soul, patron and helper. The power of the totem influences the consciousness, inspires fear, awe and respect.
Totemism contains a historically established system of names and symbols.
Fans of totemism compare their personality and the totem, and also symbolically become like it.
Animals and plants that are included in the hierarchy of totemism are protected and revered. These objects are untouchable, and their death at the hands of man is the most serious sin.
Active use of totemistic rituals.
A number of cults and numerous magical rituals are included in the list of totemistic teachings. The mixture of magical and religious components makes it somewhat difficult to understand totemism as an integral system. Group totemism is considered the most common form of this system. This type is characterized by the following features:
The existence of a mystical connection between a social group and a plant or animal.
Close connection between the name of a social group and a totem.
The symbolism of the totem, its emblem, as well as taboos were related to both the whole group and divisions.
It was believed that the totemic group arose as a result of the marriage of man and animal, less often simply by forced subjugation.
The first origin of totemism arose in shamanic circles, where the animalistic guardian god came from the individual totem. Totemism was inherited from ancestors to descendants, establishing a taboo on a certain type of animal or plant. Based on this, it was forbidden to eat the meat of a totem animal, since this was equated to eating one’s own flesh, or the flesh of one’s father. Healers and shamans associated themselves with their own totems. If the totem was insulted or physically harmed, the shaman also suffered physical or mental illness.
The totem is also designed to protect its guardian from various dangers during sleep. There is a belief that if danger creeps up on a sleeping person, the spirit of the totem enters the owner’s body, warning of danger and awakening him.
Despite the fact that totemism arose in the era of the ancient tribal system, totemistic beliefs are very stable. Taking on a different role and meaning, they continue to persist to this day in Australia, North America, India, Africa and even Central Asia.
identification of a tribe with a certain type of holy animal, totem. This type of religious belief contains a statement about consanguineous ties of a certain community with a totem animal.
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totemism
TOTEMISM- one of the early forms of religion, which is based on the belief in the existence of a special kind of mystical connection between a group of people (clan, tribe) and a certain type of animal or plant (less often - natural phenomena and inanimate objects). The name of this form of religious belief comes from the word "ototem", which is in the North American language. Ojibwe Indian means "his kind." During the study of T., it was established that its emergence is closely related to the economic activities of primitive man - gathering and hunting. Animals and plants that gave people the opportunity to exist became objects of worship. In the first stages of T.’s development, such worship did not exclude, but even assumed the use of totemic animals and plants for food. Therefore, sometimes primitive people expressed their attitude towards the totem with the words: “This is our meat.” However, this kind of connection between people and totems dates back to the distant past, and its existence is evidenced only by ancient legends and stable linguistic expressions that have reached researchers from time immemorial. Later, elements of social, primarily consanguineous, relations were introduced into T. Members of the clan group (blood relatives) began to believe that the ancestor and patron of their group was a certain totem animal or plant and that their distant ancestors, who combined the characteristics of people and the totem, had supernatural powers. This led, on the one hand, to an intensification of the cult of ancestors, and on the other hand, to a change in attitude towards the totem itself. For example, there were prohibitions on eating totems, except in cases where eating them was ritual in nature and reminiscent of ancient norms and rules. Subsequently, within the framework of T. a whole system of prohibitions arose, which were called taboo. Excellent definition
Incomplete definition ↓
Totemism is a widespread socio-religious system: this is how the notorious Wikipedia interprets this concept. Primitive religion was based on various facts and phenomena, connecting human life, its capabilities and health, for example, with the earth, various animals, as well as with other objects and phenomena. This is exactly how the division of the tribe once took place.
People were compared with certain animals (owls, coyotes, crows), in whose honor totems were created ( totem- sign, clan coat of arms, animal name). But you could also earn your totem by having special skills: intelligence, strength, speed or wisdom. The name of the totem could be completely different - from a living creature to a weather phenomenon (for example, thunder).
If a family member was totemically connected with a certain animal, then the entire family was strictly forbidden to eat this totemic animal and it was considered sacred. Everyone believed in totemism, because the ancient religion called for it.
What does totemism mean?
Word totemism(totem animal) in a broad sense denotes a set of beliefs about the existence of a unique kinship between a human group or individual - with an animal or plant that is totemic for such a group or individual. This relationship involves a series of rituals and taboos (especially of a food and sexual nature) that bind those who recognize themselves as belonging to the same totem.
The word itself totem was introduced into active use in 1791 by the English traveler J. Long to denote the connection of kinship and worship of plants and animals by Indians in Eastern North America.
In anthropology, the introduction of such a concept and the collection of examples of totemic myths began at the end of the nineteenth century. During this period, scientists especially focused their attention on some of their aspects, which later became a form of religion. The content of these myths was considered one of the most archaic forms of worship in primitive culture. Thus, the idea of totemism achieved widespread popularity and was analyzed by a wide variety of disciplines. Its introduction to anthropological discussion goes back to John MacLennan, a Scottish lawyer and ethnologist, who emphasized that totemism is characterized by three elements:
- fetishism (cult of inanimate objects);
- exogamy (prohibition of marriage between members of the clan);
- matrilineal descent (the order of inheritance of national status through the mother).
To these aspects Rivers would later add another element, namely the prohibition of eating a totemic plant or animal (except for certain ritual events).
The nature of totemism
Scientists envisioned a social scenario in which no form of exogamy yet existed, and the entire group was under the despotic control of one person. The weakening of the increased interest in the very concept of totem occurred only as their evolutionary analysis was completed. In any case, this whole topic was somehow connected with the most ancient religions of mankind.
At the same time, the religions of ancient people assumed that certain forms of totemism might not include any features that were considered an integral part of the general totemic culture. At each stage of cultural evolution, different versions and types of them could exist. Therefore, ethnographic data were important not so much for clarifying the local significance of this cult, but for identifying its universal aspects and moments that were powerful in the life of ancient people. Today a lot is known about this kind of beliefs and their various aspects.
So, characteristic feature Many primitive tribes had a cult of ancestors, and therefore the totem of a particular tribe was passed down from generation to generation. All members of the tribe respected and worshiped him. Also among the community there was a strong belief that an amulet or amulet contained the magic of the first religions, which would protect and preserve the entire family throughout life. More than one generation of ancient peoples grew up on such beliefs.
Having such ancient roots, totemism and fetishism, to one degree or another, are represented in modern world. In our time, such forms of influence of this cult are known as:
- wearing amulets;
- amulets and symbols;
- idolatry.
Nature in totemism
Depending on the situation, even entire classes of animals that patronized tribes could act as amulets. But also, there were tribes in which there could simultaneously be warriors under the auspices of the Bear, Wolf, Coyote, Raven, as well as Thunder and Wind. But, in most cases, animals are still the totem.
Totems: what is a totem animal?
How to understand what a totem animal is? It was believed that he was mainly a protector, protecting with his energy and giving strength (especially in battle).
For absolutely every man or woman, you can choose a totem animal with which you can interact on an energetic level. It will be individual for each person. The image of such a creature applied to the amulet becomes the personification of a strong connection that protects its owner from bad energetic influences and even from negative physical influences.
Due to the fact that different representations of this cult have been preserved since ancient times, one can observe how people worshiped certain “idols”. Vivid examples are the cultures of ancient Egypt, North American Indians, as well as some other cultures in which totems were considered an ancient amulet or sign containing the appearance of a sacred animal.
Panda totem animal or how not to waste energy
Among all the animals, the panda amulet is of particular importance. This is really quite an amazing animal, because in different peoples its meaning has different meanings. Pandas are found exclusively in China, but there is also information that you can meet such an animal in Tibet. A talisman with the image of a panda can mean courage, bravery, friendliness, patience, harmony and even hermitism. The energy of this animal is simply incredible, you just need to be able to control it correctly. If a person is experienced, then identifying someone belonging to the panda totem will not be difficult. As a rule, in this case we will be talking about a gentle, sympathetic, and sometimes even funny person who will look for the positive in everything and will never get into trouble.
Monkey totem or how to get help in a difficult situation
As for the monkey totem, it also evokes different thoughts and emotions in people. Some may assume that the monkey is stupid and aggressive, but this is far from the case. Belonging to the monkey totem, a person is rightfully considered balanced, very intelligent and calm. In addition, such people have strength and endurance. It is this symbol that personifies those who know how to lend a helping hand to a person in need at the most difficult moment. It is also worth mentioning that in India, the monkey is worshiped as a divine animal.
The meaning of bird totems or patron spirits
The bird totem symbolizes sublimity and lightness, and sometimes even vanity. Often he is selected as a force that protects people - his relatives. Moreover, each bird has a specific designation.
The meaning of bird totems is ambiguous, because there are good totems, and there are anti-totems. People who have lost faith in themselves or have lost their way life path, the antitotem falls to our share. This amulet was created in the form of a crow, owl and jackdaw, since their image symbolizes death and witchcraft.
In religious beliefs, information about the totems and antitotems of birds is also widely covered.
Animism, fetishism and magic
Since people believed in magic, witchcraft and were completely subservient to it, animism and fetishism (magic) have always been very popular among them. By making amulets and amulets for himself in the form of various animals and spirits, a person, with the help of faith in their strength and protection, became stronger morally, which also added to his physical endurance. It was believed that everyone should have acquired a totem, since this little “deity” was considered an undeniable amulet and protector.
Today totems also play a very important role important role. After all, it is also possible to choose a totem animal for yourself based on your zodiac sign. Each zodiac sign is associated with a specific animal, which acts as a totem. For example, for “Lions” it is a lion, for “Aquarius” it is a horse, and for “Pisces” it is a snail.
Amulets, amulets and totems of American Indians are also widely famous topic. Having one or another totem, each person was obliged to wear an amulet that personified him. It could be a small figurine of a totem animal, carved from wood or stone.
The American aborigines had a number of totems, which were highly revered by them and for which special rituals of worship were held. The image of their totems in one form or another could be of enormous size, since it was intended to protect almost the entire tribe.
How are the phenomena of totemism explained?
The first important comparative presentation of known ethnographic data is associated with the totemism theory of Frazer and Exogamy (1910), where three different hypotheses of its origin are proposed:
- The first hypothesis states that the form of totemism is individual. It supports the assumption of the peoples that there is an external soul dwelling in animals and plants.
- The second hypothesis emphasizes the magical aspect of totemism. This is especially clearly expressed in the cult of the peoples of Australia.
- The third hypothesis is based on the representation primitive people about the dependence of sexuality on the animal or plant spirit.
Fraser's monumental work on the study of collected ethnographic data on totemism emphasized, in particular, the rationality of Western ethnic groups and its difference from the more primitive thinking of Eastern peoples. One of the results of this approach was to identify a wide variety of types and forms of such approaches in the ethnographic evidence collected.
An in-depth study of these differences made it possible to establish that the variety of totemic phenomena was, indeed, too great: it did not even fit into a single typology.
Research put forward by various scholars has revealed a wide range of differing cult phenomena, so it has often been difficult to build and formulate universal hypotheses. Ideas began to be proposed with increasing caution, as well as taking into account historical continuity and certain geographical aspects.
Only one thing can be said with certainty: totemism refers to a certain form of religion of primitive culture.
In the work “Totem and Taboo” (1912), you can also familiarize yourself with Freud’s theory, in which an attempt was made to establish parallels between the two main prohibitions in totemism: alimentary and sexual. Ethnographic data regarding the prehistoric existence of the so-called primitive horde were, however, underestimated by him in favor of the well-known Darwinian hypothesis.
American writer Stanley Elkin was one of latest authors, who suggested that ethnographic analysis could still be developed towards a more generalized interpretation of totemism. While the famous French folklorist and ethnographer Van Gennep was one of the first authors to recognize that totemism cannot be considered as a universal cultural phenomenon.
This lack of universality has been confirmed by several other American anthropologists. According to Spencer's theory, totemism originated from the worship of animals.
Totemism in the modern world
also occupies a special place. Many people still believe in magic, miracles and witchcraft. All kinds of amulets and amulets are not uncommon today. Almost every third inhabitant of the planet carries them with them. Thanks to developments (“Totemism Today”), you can choose an energy protector based on your zodiac sign, date of birth and other parameters. Based on his work, you can choose a talisman in the form of a specific animal or plant.
Choosing your totem is a personal matter for everyone. However, today we can also consider such a topic as totemism and social norms. There are entire social groups that choose a specific totem for themselves. Typically, such communities are created under the leadership of a strong leader who knows how to unite and inspire people to follow certain rituals. In such groups, a set of internal laws and rules is adopted, compliance with which becomes the norm for all their participants.
Totemism is a phenomenon that most often means one of the most ancient forms of primitive religion.
This term usually refers to the division of a tribe into groups related by kinship along the male or female line. Moreover, each of these groups believes in its kinship with a totem - most often an animal (sons of a coyote, sons of a raven, etc.), less often a plant (sons of a corncob), an inanimate object or even a natural phenomenon (sons of the Big Dipper, sons of Thunder) - which considered the ancestor of this group. Often totemic groups have material emblems that have a sacred meaning (for example, churingas of the Australians, totem poles of the American Indians)). The ancestral totem is usually forbidden to kill and eat (sometimes they even avoid meeting and coming into contact with it in any way); it is considered the mystical patron of this group, and can be influenced using certain magical techniques. In some cases, a connection with a totem is established through its ritual killing and collective eating, in which all members of a given group participate (noticeable examples: the “bear festival” among the Yenisei Kets, during which all members of the group are obliged to eat a killed bear - the totem of the tribe, in order to to join this totem; the tearing and eating of a camel among some Arabian tribes in the pre-Islamic period, etc.). The taboo against killing a totem is temporarily lifted, and during a collective meal, group members join in with their common ancestor; at the same time, they often ask him for forgiveness for the murder they committed (this is exactly what they do during the “bear festivals” of the Yenisei Kets, Sakhalin Ainu, etc.). Totemism has its own mythology - this is the idea and myths about the totemic ancestor (ancestors). Sometimes ideas about totemic ancestors are associated with the belief in reincarnation, in the fact that totemic ancestors are eternally embodied in their descendants. Such beliefs were especially widespread among the aborigines of Australia; among other peoples they are less clearly represented. Totemistic ideas also reflect the close connection of the primitive collective with its territory.
North American Indian totems
The term “totem” itself was taken from the vocabulary of the North American Indians (Algonquins) and was first used in European scientific literature J. Long at the end of the 18th century. The interest of the scientific community in this phenomenon has especially increased in late XIX- early 20th century after the works of J. McLennan “On the Cult of Animals and Plants” and J. Frazer “Totemism” and “Totemism and Exogamy”. J. McLennan identified three components in this: fetishism, exogamy (the custom of marrying outside a given group) and matrilineal kinship (i.e., determining kinship along the maternal line). J. Frazer saw the basis of this in the possibility of magical influence on one’s totem (reflected, in particular, in the rituals of “reproduction” of the totem). These views in a more expansive interpretation - the preservation of elements of providential magic in totemistic beliefs (the influence on the totem as an object of providence) - were subsequently expressed by other researchers. W. Robertson-Smith argued that this is based on the concept that nature, like humanity, is divided into groups of things by analogy with consanguineous groups in human society. However, E. Taylor also warned against artificially inflating the problem of so-called, emphasizing that, in his opinion, this phenomenon has a rather modest place in religious and social systems; in addition, he drew attention to the fact that exogamy in some cases exists without totemism and, therefore, these phenomena are not inextricably linked.
Interest in totemism was especially great in the 1910-1920s, when many works devoted to this topic appeared, and in the journal “Anthropos”, starting in 1914 and for 10 subsequent years, there was a section “The Problem of Totemism”, in which The works of the most prominent scientists were published. There were many (about 40) versions of the origin of totemism, and this review is devoted to famous work And van Gennep "The current state of the totemic problem." From the point of view of the scientist himself, totemism is the distribution between secondary groups of society of areas of territory with everything that lives and grows on it, i.e. There is a close connection between totemism and trade magic.
Even the English ethnologist W. Robertson Smith noted that the blood of a sacrificial animal symbolizes the unity of a primitive collective with its deity, and the ritual killing and eating of a sacrificial animal is the prototype of any sacrifice, the conclusion of an alliance between such a collective and its deity. Different opinions have been expressed about how ideas about the connection of a particular primitive group with a particular animal arose, although, apparently, they are rooted in the psychology of primitive man. The French anthropologist E. Durkheim considered totemism to be the original form of religion. He came to the conclusion that the main object of totemistic beliefs is not a specific animal, plant or image, but some impersonal and anonymous force that is located within them, but is not mixed with them. He believed this force to be God - impersonal, without a name, without history, immanent in the world. Totemic animals and images are thus symbols of this impersonal power. At the same time, the totem is a symbol of the primitive clan, its god, in whose person the clan honors itself. In other words, he defined totemism, partly following Robertson Smith and R. Thurnwald, as a form of self-worship of the primitive collective.
W. Rivers defined totemism as a combination of three elements: social (connections of an animal, plant, etc.) with a certain (moreover, exogamous) group of people; psychological (belief in the kinship of the members of this group and its totem); ritual (veneration of an animal, plant or material object, expressed in the prohibition of its use, except in certain cases).
Some researchers focused their attention on the social aspect of the problem (E. Lang, G. Kunov, F. Graebner, V. Schmidt, etc.). Others specifically based its religious side (E. Taylor, J. Fraser, W. Rivers, W. Wundt) or psychological (B. Ankerman, R. Thurnwald) - the feeling of unity between a certain social group and totem, as well as the collectivism of primitive thinking which underlay totemistic beliefs.
Z. Freud offered his understanding of the problem of totemism. In the book "Totem and Taboo" he draws an analogy between the attitude towards animals of primitive man and that of a child - both do not completely separate themselves from the animal world. The emergence of phobias of a particular animal, which, according to his theory, is a substitute for the father, for whom the child experiences ambivalent feelings of fear and adoration, occurs as a result of the transfer of these feelings to the animal. Consequently, according to S. Freud, the totemic animal among primitive peoples is a substitute for the image of the father, and totemism itself originated from the Oedipus complex. He explains the totemic sacrifice by the same thing - the desire of the sons to kill and eat the father (his animal substitute) and take his place.
But already in the 1920s. Skeptical views were expressed on the problem of totemism. Thus, some representatives of the American historical school (A. Goldenweiser, R. Lowie) denied totemism as a phenomenon and a special form of religious beliefs. A. Goldenweiser, in particular, disputed the relationship of three phenomena that many researchers considered to be indispensable attributes of totemism: clan organization, attribution of animal and plant emblems to clans, and belief in the connection between the clan and its totem. R. Lowy was not at all sure of the existence of totemism as such.
Subsequently, there was a decline in interest in the problem of totemism. In “Anthropology” by A. Kroeber (1923), “General Anthropology”, written by F. Boas together with his students (1938), and “Social Structure” by J. Murdoch (1949), very little attention is paid to it. The connection between totemism and exogamy, which previously was often considered as the cause of the so-called, was also disputed.
The head of the cultural-morphological school, Ad. Jensen, denied totemism as a form of religion and believed that it was a transfer of earlier ideas - “real totemism” (belief in mythical half-animal ancestors, going back to the belief in the divine “master of animals”) to the primitive collective. A. Elkin, H. Petri and A. Shlesner identified “cult totemism” in Australia, which, in their opinion, is primary in relation to “social totemism”. The prominent ethnologist and anthropologist A. Elkin did not question the existence of totemism, but he seemed to “fragment this phenomenon, highlighting individual, sexual, etc. totemism.
Proponents of functionalism did not deny the existence of totemism as a phenomenon, but explained it in accordance with their theory. Thus, B. Malinovsky reduces the totemic problem to three questions. He explains the cult of animals and plants in totemism by the fact that they are necessary for humans as food and therefore quite naturally find themselves at the center of the interests of the primitive group. The belief in the kinship of man and animal is rooted, in his opinion, in the similarity of many biological functions of man and animal and even, in the idea of primitive man, in the superiority of some animals over man. The desire to control one or another type of animal (so that it is available as an object of hunting or does not pose a danger) leads, according to B. Malinovsky, to the emergence of the idea of community with the totem animal, as well as to the establishment of prohibitions on killing the totem, etc. P. A. Radcliffe-Brown considered totemism as a special case of formulating human connections with natural species in myth and ritual. He also denied that totemism was a universal phenomenon, believing that there were many different phenomena associated with different institutions; the only thing that unites them is the association of individual segments of society with some plant or animal species.
Totemism in Ancient Egypt
According to E. Evans-Pritchard, the totemic connection is rooted not in the very nature of the totem, but in the associations that it evokes in human consciousness, i.e. concepts and emotions that are outside of them are projected onto living beings and objects.
The head of the Vienna School, J. Heckel, believed that totemism developed on the basis of various sources, the main one of which was the “socialization” of certain types of animals.
Cl. Lévi-Strauss, on the one hand, considered the problem of totemism to be far-fetched, not corresponding to reality. He pointed out the artificiality of the formation of the word “totem” itself, which in this form does not exist in the language of the Ojibwe Indians of the Algonquian group and noted that they had never encountered a belief based on the fact that members of the clan were descendants of a totem animal and that it was an object cult. On the other hand, he considered totemism as a way of classifying natural phenomena, not fundamentally different from the classifications used in the Middle Ages and even in some cases modern science. The logic of totemic classification is based on the idea of similarity. Therefore, the entire system of totemistic beliefs, according to Cl. Lévi-Strauss, is a system of codes that establishes a logical equivalence between natural species and social groups.
Representatives of the Soviet ethnographic school, in their attempts to explain the phenomenon of totemism, adhered, which was inevitable, to the Marxist approach to religion and acted as followers of evolutionist views. S.P. Tolstov considered totemism as a form of consciousness of the connection between members of one group and its opposition to other groups. In his opinion, the basis of totemism is a feeling of connection with certain species of animals or plants, the unity of a human group with the territory it occupies and the productive forces located on this territory. The scientist believed that totemism is a more ancient phenomenon than clan organization. A. Zolotarev argued that totemism is the first form of religious reflection of consanguinity. A. Anisimov saw the central idea of totemism as a historically developed ideological reflection of certain features of the consanguineous structure of social groups. S. Atokarev, believing that the most important and difficult to explain in totemism is the belief in kinship, a certain mystical connection between the primitive clan and its totem, argued that the basis of totemism as the oldest form of religion is the transfer of consanguineous relationships to the outside world, a reflection of the ancient clan structure societies with a prevailing type of consanguineous social ties.
It has been pointed out more than once that in the system of totemistic ideas the animal plays a far from prominent role - it can be a plant, an object, etc. Some researchers (F.Grebner, W.Schmidt and others) tried to explain why this or that animal (plant, etc.) becomes a totem of a given group by economic reasons - in their opinion, an animal or plant became a totem, former subject export of this team. Yu.I. Semenov believes that the specialization of individual hunting groups in hunting a particular animal, which subsequently became the totem of this group, played a significant role in the formation of totemism.
The meaning of the ritual killing and eating of a totem, which is usually taboo, is, according to some researchers, to strengthen the clan’s connection with its totem (sometimes this ritual is called “God-eating” as a prototype of later ritual meals).
Turning to the question of totemic ancestors, researchers sometimes considered them real people, deified after their death, although L. Levi-Bruhl noted that the mythological (totemic) and real ancestors of the primitive collective should not be confused. But more often than not, researchers admit that these are not the real ancestors of this or that group, they are often endowed with fantastic features and properties, and ideas about them are quite vague. Following B. Malinovsky, who explained the connection between myth and ritual and pointed out that mythology is a kind of justification for ritual practice, many researchers consider such ancestors to be the mythological personification of the sense of unity of a given group. Totemic ancestors are considered as a religious-mythological sanction of the customs of a given primitive group: the founders of totemic rituals and prohibitions. Some scientists (M. Fortes) generally associate the emergence of so-called with the cult of ancestors, believing that the relationship between people and totemic animals is a symbol of the relationship between people and ancestors in terms of mystical causality.
Some scientists believe that numerous mythological stories about sexual intercourse between people (especially women) and animals were originally associated with totemic ideas about the reincarnation of totemic ancestors.
It was also suggested that totemic ancestors could act as the most ancient “cultural heroes”. Some scientists (L. Levi-Bruhl, D.E. Khaitun) interpret anthropozoomorphic images, as well as images of people in animal masks of the Paleolithic era as images of totemic ancestors.
Some researchers consider various kinds of tabooism, zoolatry (animal worship), worship of zooanthropomorphic deities (having human and animal features), belief in werewolves, ideas about metempsychosis (transmigration of souls), etc. remnants of totemism. Apparently, such a view is legitimate if it is possible to establish a connection between such ideas and the collective (especially if the latter bears the name of a given animal). A number of scientists consider the veneration of a particular animal by a tribe or even an entire nation as a manifestation of a late stage of development of so-called tribal totemism; others deny this phenomenon. Echoes of totemistic beliefs can be traced in the mythological systems of the most various peoples(especially in ancient Egypt and India).
Literature: Freud Z. Totem and taboo. Pg., b.g.; Zolotarev A. Remnants of totemism among the peoples of Siberia. L., 1934; Khaitun D.E. Totemism, its essence and origin. Dushabbe, 1958; Semenov Yu.I. The emergence of human society. Krasnoyarsk, 1962; Tokarev S.A. Totemism // Tokarev S.A. Early forms of religion. M., 1990; Fraser J.G. Totemism and Exogamy. V.1,2. L., 1910; Van Gennep A. L "etat actuel du probleme totemique. 1920; Thurnwald R. Die Psychologie des Totomismus // Anthropos. 1917-1918 Bd.XII-XIII; Goldenveiser A. The method of investigating totemism // Anthropos. 1915-1916. Bd.X-XII; Lowie R. Primitive Society. N.Y., 1925; Les formnes elementaires de la vie religieuse: lt systeme totemique en Australie. ; Malinowski B. Myth in Primitive Psychology. L., 1926; Makarius R., L "origine de l" exogamie et du totemism. (., 1961; Levi-Strauss Cl. Le totemism aujourd "hui. , 1962.
Kets: myths and reality. Rituals, ceremonies, legends
The treasury of Ket mythology is rich in amazing and beautiful legends that explain the creation of the world and the origin of many natural phenomena. Once upon a time, the Kets lived in the upper reaches of the Yenisei, on fertile lands, knowing neither need nor sorrow. But one day they were attacked from the south by a tribe of cannibals. The Kets built boats and sailed in them along the Yenisei, entrusting their fate to the spirit of the river and praying for salvation. The cannibals did not know how to swim, so they grabbed mountains and threw them into the river - this is how river rapids appeared. But the Yenisei broke the mountains with its powerful stream and carried the boats further. In the Turukhansk region, the cannibals staged the most powerful ambush, throwing several huge mountains into the river, and the Yenisei could not break through them. Then it overflowed into a lake, raised its waters and began to flow into the Ob valley. The powerful shaman Alba, watching what was happening, took pity on the people and cut the rocks with a huge knife. So the Yenisei broke through into the Turukhan Valley, where the Kets tribes settled. 
Bear Ritual (Bear Festival)
In the mythology of the Kets, the bear acts as a deity, a guardian spirit, a totem animal, the master of the lower world and the animal double of man. He was considered the shaman's assistant, the embodiment of his soul, and even a werewolf. The cult of the bear permeates the entire concept of the world that the Kets adhere to. The ritual demonstrating the identity of the bear and man is called the “Bear Festival” or “Bear Hunt”. After killing a bear, its skin is removed - this is the first stage of introducing the animal to human nature. Then the eating of bear meat begins - this is how the bear merges with the person, and the differences between them are completely erased. This ritual has been preserved to this day among the Ket tribes. Before a hunt or after its successful completion, as well as during healing rituals, chum salmon perform a ritual dance - wearing bear masks and skins, accompanied by bear songs.
Among the Kets, the bear is considered the patron of healing, and not only the health of people, but also of domestic animals depends on its favor. Therefore, before the shaman was going to treat the patient, he used special spells to summon the spirit of the bear. Particularly powerful shamans themselves can transform into these animals, and during magical rituals they turn into bears and other people.
More about Ket mythology:
Khosedem is the goddess of evil who lives in one of the gorges in the rock on the banks of the Yenisei and sends damage, illness and troubles to people. Tomem is a bright Goddess who opposes Khosedem and lives in the sky, under the sun. She was once Yesya’s wife, but then she cheated on him with a month, and he expelled her from his possessions.
One of the active participants in Ket myths is Alba, the first person on earth who took part in the creation of the world. Alba controls people's lives and helps them in case of danger. One day he decided to rid the world of Khosedem and drove her north along the Yenisei, but she turned into a sterlet and disappeared into the dark waters of the river. Alba jumped after her, but she suddenly soared into the sky, turning into a bird. He raced after her across the sky in a huge sleigh, leaving a trail in the form of the Milky Way. As a result, he managed, if not to get rid of Khosedem, then at least to drive her to the north, where she still lives.
It’s a pity that there are very few Ket people left - thanks to the Europeanization of Russian territory, the old Ket traditions and cults are dying out. Many suffer from hunger and alcoholism. And scientists’ forecasts are disappointing - over time, this nation will disappear from the face of the earth. And along with it, a rich culture that has developed over many centuries will sink into oblivion. Memories of Ket rites and rituals will remain only in history. Maybe the Kets are simply going back to the stars from where they came? They probably completed their mission on our planet, and Alba ordered them to return back. It's a pity if they leave us...
